RELG 330 - History of Christianity
Course Notes
Chapter 9
Page 111 - Ecumenical Councils - (see also pages 102 & 208) - "Ecumenical" means that they were accepted by the whole Church all over the civilized world (the Oecumene)
The first seven Ecumenical Councils were :
- AD 325 - the First Council of Nicaea - to deal with Arianism, formulated the original Nicene Creed
- AD 381 - the First Council of Constantinople - to deal with Arianism and Macedonianism, and revise the Nicene Creed
- AD 431 - the Council of Ephesus - to deal with Nestorianism and Pelagianism
- AD 451 - the Council of Chalcedon - to deal with Monophysitism, formulated the Chalcedonian Creed
- AD 553 - the Second Council of Constantinople - to deal with Nestorianism
- AD 680-681 - the Third Council of Constantinople - to deal with Monothelitism and Monoenergism
- AD 787 - the Second Council of Nicaea - to deal with iconoclasm and to restore the use of icons as spiritual aids
Page 114 - "consubstantial" and "homoousios" (the Latin and Greek terms used to describe the relation of the Son to the Father) illustrate the division which was starting between the Western and Eastern branches of the Church. Languages reflect and influence the thinking of the people speaking them, and the Empire was already divided into Latin speakers and thinkers, and Greek speakers and thinkers. "Consubstantial" can be translated literally into English as "with the same substance"; "homoousios" can be translated literally as "with the same being (essence)" - almost the same, but reflecting a different way of thinking.
Pages 116-117 - Athanasius of Alexandria - (ca. AD 297 - 373) was bishop of Alexandria, and held out for the Trinity against Arianism.
When he was 27 years old, and only a deacon, he attended the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325) and was one of the leaders of the argument against Arianism.
In AD 328 he was made Bishop of Alexandria, and continued the fight against Arianism - even when it appeared that he was the only one who stood against it. There was a saying "Athanasius contra mundum" = "Athanasius against the world" - he was willing to take on the Emperor and all the other powerful Arians.
He is named as one of the "Doctors of the Church" in the West, and as "Father of Orthodoxy" in the Eastern Orthodox churches.
Page 117 - Hilary of Poitiers (ca.AD 300 - ca.368) was a guy - NOT a gal. Hilary was originally a guy's name (meaning "laughter"). He was caught in the fight for orthodoxy against the Arians. He started life as a pagan, became interested in Greek philosophy, but when he studied the Old and New Testaments he became a Christian. He lived in Poitiers (in what is now France) until the Emperor Constantius (who was an Arian) sent him into exile, but he was allowed to return after several years.
Page 121 - homoiousios (pronounced hom-oy-OO-see-oss) - means literally "of similar being" (Note that it is "similar" - but not exactly the same. Note the difference from "homoousios". There were jokes in the Western Empire about the Eastern Empire fighting over one little letter.
Page 124 - The Cappadocian Fathers were Basil the Great, his brother Gregory of Nyssa, and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus. They headed the fight for orthodoxy against Arianism during the fourth century in the East. They were all born in the region of Cappadocia in what is now south-east Turkey. Basil and Gregory of Nyssa had an older sister, St. Macrina, who was also a theologian and who was an influence on her brothers
Page 124 - Gregory of Nazianzus (ca.AD 329 - ca.390), also known as "Gregory the Theologian" became archbishop of Constantinople in AD 381. He wrote theological treatises defending the Trinitarian view of God against the Arians, and also against the Emperor Julian (ruled AD 361-363), who had rejected Christianity and was trying to enforce a return to paganism. In 381 he presided over the First Council of Constantinople, but when Arian bishops objected to his presence he resigned from the council, and shortly afterwards retired from his position of bishop.
Pages 124-125 - Theodosius I - (see also Pages 107-109). Theodosius I (ca. AD 346-395) was the son of a Christian general, and served in the army. His father was executed due to political intrigue by his enemies, and Theodosius retired to Spain. However, when the Eastern Emperor Valens died in 378 the Western Emperor Gratian called Theodosius to become Emperor of the East (379). Theodosius fought off the invading Goths, Vandals, and Huns, and then set about strengthening the position of the Christian Church in the Empire. He published an edict ordering people to become Christians, but he did not persecute non-Christians, Arians, or Manichaeans - he said he only wanted to frighten them into becoming Christians.
Gratian, the Western Emperor, was murdered in 383 and Maximus usurped the Western Empire. Theodosius told Maximus to let Gratian's brother Valentinian rule Italy, but in 387 Maximus drove Valentinian out. Theodosius brought Valentinian back, killed Maximus, and defeated his pagan army.
Theodosius put an end to paganism and fought heresy in the Empire. He became sole Emperor in 392. On his death in 395 the Empire was divided between his two sons, and it was never again a united Empire.
In AD 381 Theodosius called the Council of Constantinople with the aim of uniting the Western and the Eastern Empires under orthodox Nicaean Christianity. The Council confirmed Gregory Nazianzus as Patriarch of Constantinople and issued an updated version of the Nicene Creed (the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed) which affirmed the Trinity as three Persons of one Being, and clarified that the Holy Spirit is divine. This version of the Nicene Creed became the Creed used in Baptism - the declaration of faith made by all Christians. At the end of the Council, Theodosius passed an imperial decree restoring all churches to bishops who affirmed the Trinity, thereby driving Arianism out of the Eastern Church.
Page 127 - "passible" and "impassible" - "passible" means "capable of suffering", impassible means untouched by emotions.
Page 129 - Pelagians were followers of Pelagius (ca. AD 360 - ca.420), who was a British-born Christian who traveled to Rome, and was very shocked by the life-style of the Christians there.
Pelagius insisted that Christians should live very austere and pure lives. He taught an extreme view of free-will, claiming that it was possible to live without sin (thereby making Jesus' death on the Cross unnecessary for those who worked hard at being "perfect").
Pelagius and Augustine of Hippo became great adversaries of one another, as Augustine realized that Pelagius was teaching that Christ was just a "good example" for Christians to follow in order to work their way into heaven.
Alaric and the Goths sacked Rome in AD 410, and Pelagius fled and traveled throughout the Empire, eventually settling in Palestine.
He and his teaching were condemned by various bishops and Church councils. He was excommunicated in AD 418, and probably fled to Egypt and died ca. AD 420.
Pages 128-129 - Nestorius (AD 386-451) was archbishop of Constantinople from AD 428 until he was deposed by the Council of Ephesus in AD 431. He opposed Arianism, but he also had ideas about the person of Jesus that were judged to be heretical. He opposed the title of "Theotokos" (Bearer of God) given to Mary, and tried to make a distinction between the "Logos" (the Word) and the "Christ", seeing "Logos" as the divine nature, and Christ as the Son - the human nature. He did not believe that the "divine nature" could possibly have taken part in the sufferings of Jesus.
There was also a political element in the dispute, because Nestorius, as archbishop of Constantinople, thought that he should be more important than bishop Cyril of Alexandria.
The Nestorians moved eastward to Persia (now Iran) where they became the official church.
In spite of persecution by Islam, there still are branches of the Nestorian Church in the Middle East, such as the "Assyrian Church", the "East Syrian Church", the "Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East", and the "Persian Church"
Pages 128-129 - Cyril of Alexandria (ca.AD 375-444) was an opponent of the Novatian party and of Nestorius. Cyril presided over the Council of Ephesus (AD 431), which condemned Nestorianism and declared that Mary was the "Theotokos" (Bearer of God). However, Cyril's language was not precise, and the subject of the Person and Nature of Christ had not been fully explored. So at the time of the Council of Ephesus it was thought that Christ could only have one "nature" (either divine, or human, or some sort of mixture). It was the later Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) that realized that Christ could have two "natures" (divine and human) but still be one "Person"
Page 129 - Adoptionism was the heresy that Christ was not really the Son of God, but was a human being adopted by God, or given special powers by God
Page 131 - The "Tome" of Leo was of importance in the future struggle for power and pre-eminence between the Western and Eastern Churches. Rome claimed that the Eastern Churches had relied upon Rome for guidance as to correct doctrine, and had thereby acknowledged the leadership of Rome
Copyright © 2005 Shirley J. Rollinson, all Rights Reserved
