RELG 330 - History of Christianity
Course Notes
Chapter 32
Page 457 - Oceania denotes the lands in and around the Pacific Ocean
Page 457 - Ludwig Feuerbach's name is pronounced LUD-vig FOY-er-BAHK
Pages 461-462 - Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 - 1821) started out as a French soldier, who worked his way up through the ranks during the French Revolution, and became a general at the age of 24.
He was a military genius who set out on a career of conquest for France and for himself. He eventually took control of France, and made himself Emperor in 1804. He made members of his family Kings, Princes, and Princesses of the countries he conquered, even making one of his generals, Jean Bernadotte, King of Sweden.
Napoleon was opposed by a Coalition formed by Britain, Austria, and Russia. Napoleon was generally successful until he made the bad mistake of trying to invade Russia. The French army fought the Russian army at the Battle of Borodino, outside Moscow, in 1812, where it is estimated that nearly 100,000 soldiers died. Although the French technically "won" the Battle, they lost the war. The Russian retreated and burned Moscow behind them (they did not care that their own people would die of famine) - leaving nothing but burned desolation for Napoleon's army. There was nothing for Napoleon to do but try to march his army back to France - in the middle of a Russian winter. It is said that on the night of 8/9 November nearly 10,000 of his men and horses froze to death. From what had started out as a French army of 400,000 fighting men, fewer than 40,000 made it back to France.
In spite of his losses, Napoleon continued to fight the Coalition until France was surrounded by her enemies. Paris declared that Napoleon was deposed, and surrendered to the Coalition. On hearing of that, Napoleon announced his abdication. He was sent into exile on the Island of Elba (in the Mediterranean, between Italy and Corsica) in 1814. In 1815 he escaped from Elba, landed in France, and started to recruit an army again. The French soldiers who were sent to intercept his advance promptly joined him and marched to Paris.
The Congress of Vienna (March 13, 1815) declared Napoleon to be an outlaw, and a new Coalition was formed, between Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Napoleon arrived in Paris on March 20, and became Emperor again - for 100 days. On 18 June, 1815 Napoleon led his army in the Battle of Waterloo, against British forces led by Lord Wellington, and Prussians led by Blücher. The French lost the Battle, and Napoleon fled to Paris, where he found that the legislature and the common people had turned against him. He abdicated, and fled from Paris, hoping to escape to America. However, he found that the British had blockaded every port, so he surrendered to the British. He was taken to exile on the Island of Saint Helena (in the Atlantic, 1,000 miles off the coast of Africa). His health deteriorated considerably, and he died in 1821, probably of stomach cancer. Before he died he reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church.
While he was Emperor, although he did not behave very well towards the Pope (Pius VII), he did at least negotiate a "concordat" (treaty) with the Vatican in 1801, recognizing Roman Catholicism as the dominant religion in France. For several years he kept the Pope almost a prisoner in France; Napoleon chose the bishops and controlled the Church finances. He emancipated the Jews and the Protestants. Napoleon's greatest effect on the Church was probably the way he re-organized the whole of Europe, without forcing it to become secular. By invading Russia, he brought Russia into alliance with the rest of Europe against him and Russia became a world power.
As a matter of interest (not mentioned in the textbook) - Before he became Emperor, while he was still a General of the French army, he led a campaign to conquer Egypt and parts of the Middle East (1798-1801) in order to block Britain's trade with India. It seems that he tried to negotiate with the Egyptians to become their King, and even offered to become a Muslim. However, the Egyptians eventually revolted against him, the British Admiral Nelson engaged the French Navy at the Battle of the Nile (August 1-3, 1798) thus cutting off his supply route from France, and Napoleon eventually had to retreat in defeat to France - where he managed to take control of the weak government and make himself sole ruler.
Page 465-466 - Pope Pius IX (1792-1878; Pope 1846-1878) called the First Vatican Council (1869) which brought in the doctrine of "Papal Infallibility" (under certain conditions, when making a solemn declaration on faith or morals, the Pope will be acted upon by the Holy Spirit so that he does not promulgate an error), and the dogma of the "Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary" (that the Virgin Mary was conceived without original sin, and did not commit sin during her life on earth. Pius' reign started out well - he set political prisoners free. However, Italy was plagued with revolutionary movements, assassination attempts, and other terrorist attacks, and Pius' reaction was to turn more and more conservative and harsh.
Psges 466 & 467 - the Immaculate Conception - does NOT refer to the birth of Jesus, but to the birth of the Virgin Mary. It is the doctrine that the Virgin Mary was born without the stain of original sin. It was formalized by Pope Pius IX in 1854 : "From the first moment of her conception the Blessed Virgin Mary was, by the singular grace and privilege of Almighty God, and in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, Savior of mankind, kept free from all stain of original sin.". The idea had a long history, with supporters using Luke 1:28 as a proof-text. It was particularly strong in the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Thomas Aquinas and the Dominicans (and later the Jesuits) supported the idea, whereas Duns Scotus and the Franciscans opposed it. In 1439 the Council of Basle affirmed it as a pious opinion, and the Council of Trent declared that the Virgin Mary was not included in its declarations about original sin. Pope Pius IX declared it to be official Roman Catholic doctrine when he published the Bull "Ineffabilis Deus" in 1854.
Pages 466 & 467 - Papal Infallibility does not say that the Pope can never make a mistake. It is the doctrine, promulgated by the First Vatican Council in 1870, that the Pope is infallible when he solemnly declares that a doctrine concerning faith or morals is part of the deposit of divine revelation handed down from apostolic tradition.
"ex cathedra" indicates that the Pope is speaking "from the Chair of St. Peter" as the divinely appointed guardian of Christian faith and morals.
The declaration of Papal Infallibility by the First Vatican Council caused a division within the Roman Catholic Church. Those who did not accept the doctrine formed the Old Catholic Churches - a group of national Catholic Churches in union with one another and with the Church of Utrecht (Holland) and some Slavic national Churches.
Page 469 - Kulturkampf (pronounced kul-TOOR-kampf) means "culture-war. Civil marriages (performed by the state) are still compulsory in Germany. If a couple wishes for a Church wedding they have to have a state wedding first, then they usually have the church wedding and the wedding banquet on the next day. There is quite often some sniggering and questions about what are they going to do on the night between the two weddings.
Copyright © 2005 Shirley J. Rollinson, all Rights Reserved
