Notes for Christianity for RELG 402 - World's Living Religions

In the early centuries of the Church there were various theological disputes, for example as to the Nature of Christ. How should one describe His divine and His human nature and their relationship? Is His "Nature" or "Substance" identical with the Father's, or just similar to the Father's? Did He have only one will - identical with that of the Father, or did He have a distinct will? How do "good works" relate to the state of one's soul? What determines whether or not a bishop has been correctly chosen and consecrated? These, and a number of other questions, were debated at some of the early Church Councils - and at nearly every council those who did not agree with the view of the Council tended to split off and form a new group.

The three great traditions within Christianity are the Roman Catholic Church, which has been the dominant church in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church, which comprises several national churches such as the Russian Orthodox and the Greek Orthodox, and Protestant Christianity, which comprises several thousand "denominations" which grew out of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation.

Although people tend to focus on the differences between various groups of Christians, there are a great number of points upon which Christians all agree.
Mainline Christianity (as contrasted with some of the extreme views and New Religious Movements) affirms that Christian teaching must be based on the Bible. The Bible is the supreme authority and is the written form of God's revelation of Himself and His will for His people.
God is a complex unity, in which there are three Persons - Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
The Son became a human being in the person of Jesus.
God acted in the life and death of Jesus, to bear the sin of the world, so that believers might be delivered from its guilt and its power, and share in Life with God.
According to the textbook, the beliefs which unite Christians are :

Arians followed Arius (256-336), who taught that Christ was created by God the Father, and was of similar, though not identical, Nature as the Father. Arianism was condemned as heretical by the First Council of Chalcedon in 325, but it persisted for several centuries. The Emperor Constantine's successor (his son Constantius II) and the later Emperor Valens were Arians. However, the Second Ecumenical Council condemned Arianism, and it gradually died out. In the West, Ulfilas was an Arian missionary among the Goths and Vandals, and Arianism survived until the eighth century.

Pelagians followed Pelagius (360-418), a British monk who reacted against the lax behavior of the Christians in Rome, and insisted on a life of Good Works as being essential for salvation. He maintained that human beings were capable of obeying God's Laws without divine aid, and denied the doctrine of Original Sin. An extreme position of this view is that human beings are capable of living a sinless life, and so do not need a Savior.

Nestorian churches follow the teaching of Nestorius (386-450), who was Patriarch of Constantinople (428-431). Nestorius taught that Christ had two separate Natures (Human and Divine). This view was declared heretical by the Council of Ephesus (432) and the Second Council of Chalcedon (451). As a result, many of Nestorius' followers moved East out of the Byzantine Empire into the Sasanian Empire (in the region which is now Iran) and brought Nestorian ideas into the Church of the East - which is now often referred to as the Nestorian Church. The Nestorian Church was active in missionary work, and spread into China and India. However, it was weakened and almost annihilated when Islam spread into the region and conquered Persia in 644. The Mar Thoma Church (St. Thomas Christians) of India is one of the remaining Churches of this group.

Miaphysite, often called Monophysite, though the former term is now preferred (both mean "One Nature") Christians teach that Christ has only one Nature - both divinity and humanity are united in one Nature. The teaching arose as a reaction against Nestorianism. There seems to have been some misunderstanding between various groups at the Second Council of Chalcedon in 451, resulting in a group of Churches in the East rejecting the Council. These included the Coptic Church of Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Armenian Orthodox Church, and several others - the group as a whole is referred to as the Oriental Orthodox Churches or the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox Churches.

The "Great Schism" between the Eastern and Western Christian churches came to a head in AD 1057.
Factors leading to the Schism were

There were other, lesser, differences, such as how baptism was to be performed, the validity of the later Church Councils, the Calendar and how the date of Easter was to be determined, and whether or not priests might be married.

By about the fourteenth century there were calls for reformation in both the Eastern and the Western churches - a call to return to the values and worship of the Early Church.
In the East, the movement for reformation remained within the Church, although a later reformation resulted in a breakaway group of "Old Believers".
in the West, the movement for reformation tended to break free of the existing Church hierarchy, giving rise to various Protestant (or Evangelical or Reformed) groups.
Protestants reject the authority of the Pope - they regard him as the Bishop of Rome, with as much authority as any other bishop, but not more than other bishops. They usually regard the Bible as being authoritative, or even the literal inerrant word of God. They generally count only Baptism and Communion as Sacraments, allow the clergy to marry, and affirm the "priesthood of all believers" - they can all pray, take part in church ministries, etc.

A sacrament is defined as an "outward and physical sign of an inward and spiritual grace"
The two Dominical Sacraments - so-called because Jesus commanded His disciples to perform them - are Baptism and the Eucharist.

The foundational Sacrament of the Christian Church is generally agreed to be the Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion, the Lord's Supper, and the Mass (several names for the same Sacrament). The name Eucharist comes from the Greek for "I give thanks", the name Mass comes from the Latin words of dismissal at the conclusion "Ite. Missa est" (Go - It is the dismissal)
For the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholics, and some Anglicans/Episcopalians, the Lord Jesus is actually present in the Sacrament. This is referred to as the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ, and the process is called transubstantiation - the substance of the Bread and Wine is changed.
For most Lutherans, there is a process of consubstantiation - the Sacrament retains its nature, but Christ is also present in it.
For most Presbyterians and some Anglicans/Episcopalians there is a "virtual presence" of Christ with the Sacrament, although its nature is not changed.
For many Protestants, the rite is only "in memory" of Christ and His death for us.
The Eucharist should be celebrated by the whole community. Communion taken to the sick in hospital etc. is seen as an extension and outreach by their fellow-Christians. The origin of the Eucharist is the Last Supper, and Christ's command to "Do this in remembrance of Me".
The outward and visible signs of the Eucharist are the elements of bread and wine, and the prayer of consecration and thanksgiving, in which the priest recalls Jesus' words at the Last Supper. The congregation then receives the elements, which by faith become for them the Body and Blood of Christ.
The inward and spiritual graces of the Eucharist are a strengthened union with Christ, further growth in life as a Christian, and a deeper union with the whole body of Christ, the Church.

Baptism is the sacrament of Christian initiation.
If the person to be baptized is old enough, a period of instruction precedes the rite. In the case of a child, a promise is made by parents and godparents that instruction will follow, so that when the child is old enough it will be confirmed in the faith.
The outward and visible sign of Baptism is that the candidate is immersed, or that water is poured on the candidate, and the minister (who may in emergency be a lay person) says "I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"
It is customary, though not essential, that the candidate be given a "Christian name" at baptism.
The inward and spiritual grace of baptism is that all the person's sins are forgiven, and the person is born again to new life in Christ as an adopted child of God.
Baptist Churches teach that baptism should only be administered to someone who is old enough to make a mature decision and profession of Faith in Jesus as their Lord.
Other churches may baptize infants and children of believing Christians - this is so that they may have the spiritual protection of being members of the Church, and be brought up in a Christian environment until they are old enough to make a profession of faith for themselves - this is provided for by the sacrament of Confirmation.

Confirmation is the sacrament of the "laying on of hands" and anointing with oil and prayer for the Holy Spirit, by the bishop, when the confirmand makes a public profession of faith in Christ (takes responsibility for the vows which were made at baptism)
The outward and visible sign is the laying on of hands, and usually also anointing with chrism (oil which has been blessed and consecrated for the purpose). The candidate makes a public profession of faith in Jesus Christ, and vows to follow Christ as Lord. The bishop is the minister for confirmation.
The inward and spiritual grace is the gift of the strength and graces of the Holy Spirit

The sacrament of Penance or Confession is one of the Sacraments of Healing.
The outward and visible sign of the sacrament of Penance is a confession of sin to God, in the presence of a priest as a witness and counselor who also prays with the penitent, followed by the assurance of forgiveness, and usually a penance. A penance is seen as being for the penitent's spiritual well-being, and will also require that the sinner makes restitution to anyone who has been wronged by the sin.
The inward and spiritual grace is the forgiveness of sin and reconciliation with God. It should also result in peace and serenity of conscience.
The ordained minister who hears a confession must keep the matter under absolute secrecy - not even a court of Law can call upon him to disclose it.

The sacrament of Holy Matrimony (marriage) is one of the Sacraments of Service - in it, a man and a woman pledge themselves to one another in a partnership for the whole of life, for the good of the spouse and of any children that they may have.
The outward and visible signs of the sacrament are the vows spoken by the bride and groom, often accompanied by giving and receiving a ring.
The inward and spiritual grace is the strengthening by the Holy Spirit as the source of their love, fidelity and consecration to one another.
The priest or other minister is present as a witness of their vows, and also pronounces a blessing on the marriage.

The Sacrament of Holy Orders is one of the Sacraments of Service.
It is administered to ordinands who have been selected and trained to minister to the body of believers. There are three degrees of Holy Orders - bishops, priests, and deacons.
The diaconate (service as a deacon) is for service in the form of acts of mercy, teaching, preaching, and other ways of service to the community. A deacon is under the direction of the bishop.
A priest is ordained as a co-worker with the bishop, and may celebrate communion and lead other services of the church.
The bishop is seen as a "guardian of the faith" - it is his duty to make sure that his priests preach and teach truly. It is the bishop who administers the sacraments of Confirmation and Holy Orders, and who takes part in the consecration of another bishop.

The Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick, which is commonly called "Last Rites" because it is administered to those who are dying, is not only for approaching death but for any sickness.
The outward and visible sign is anointing with oil, accompanied by a prayer for healing.
The inward and spiritual grace is a renewal of trust and faith in God, and the peace and courage to face the situation.

Advent begins on the 4th Sunday before Christmas, and focuses on the coming of Christ into the world - first, as a baby at Bethlehem, but mainly looking towards His return as King and Judge at the end of Time.
Advent is a "penitential season" when people get serious with God. The liturgical color is purple - for repentance. The name Advent is from Latin, and means "coming"

The season of Christmas starts on Christmas Day, December 25, and lasts for 12 days (the 12 Days of Christmas). The focus is on the Birth of Christ. The liturgical color is white.
(The diagram on p. 459 of the textbook is incorrect - the Christmas season ends at Epiphany, January 6.)

January 6 is the Feast of the Epiphany, which commemorates the visit of the wise men (who were not Jews) to worship the baby Jesus - this is taken to mean the manifestation of God to all nations, rather than to just the Jews. The Epiphany season lasts until the start of Lent. The liturgical color is white. The name is from Greek, and means "manifestation"
Epiphany ends with "Shrove Tuesday" or "Mardi Gras" - when people who were going to fast from meat and eggs during Lent had a last big meal of meat before the Fast started. "Shrove" is from the English "shriven" - forgiven from sin. Mardi Gras is medieval French, meaning Fat Tuesday.

The season of Lent starts with Ash Wednesday, which is 46 days before Easter Day - this is to give 40 days of fasting (with 6 Sundays which are not Fast days).
Ash Wednesday is a day for solemn repentance and acknowledgement that we are all going to die. Many Christians fast all day and go to Church for a special service in which the priest marks a cross with powdered ashes on their foreheads, while saying "Remember, O man, that thou art dust, and to dust thou shalt return."
The season of Lent is a time of solemn repentance and self-denial, in remembrance of Jesus suffering and death for us. The liturgical color is purple. The name is from the German for Spring.

The last week of Lent is called Holy Week, and its focus is on the last week of Jesus' life. It starts with Palm Sunday - the Sunday before Easter Day.
Palm Sunday commemorates Jesus entering Jerusalem on a donkey, while the crowds waved palm branches and acclaimed him as the one "Coming in the Name of the Lord".
On the Wednesday evening of Holy Week there may be a service of Tenebrae (shadows) - all the candles in the church are extinguished one by one, while reading solemn psalms - this is in preparation for the solemnities of the next days.
The Thursday of Holy Week is called Maundy Thursday, or Holy Thursday. There is often a special communion service and foot-washing commemorating the Last Supper of Jesus with His disciples. Communion should not be celebrated on the next two days (Good Friday and Holy Saturday), in respect for Jesus' Crucifixion and death. After the Tenebrae service it is customary for all decorations in the church to be removed or covered with black or purple veils until the morning of Easter Day. The name Maundy is an English corruption of the Latin "mandare" - to command.
Good Friday - the Friday before Easter Day - is a day of solemn fasting in remembrance of Jesus' death on the Cross. No Eucharist may be celebrated.
Some churches hold a service in which the Seven Last Words (the seven statements of Jesus on the Cross) are read, with a series of meditations and prayers.

Easter does not have a fixed date on the calendar. It is derived from the Jewish calendar, which is lunar. Easter is calculated as the Sunday after the Paschal full moon. "Paschal" is derived from the name of the Jewish Feast of Pesach - Passover - which was the original setting of the Crucifixion of Jesus.
Easter Day commemorates the Resurrection of Jesus.
Some churches will hold an Easter Vigil (or Paschal Vigil) - a service which starts solemnly in the darkness of the evening (according to the Jewish custom, the Day begins with the evening). A new fire is kindled and blessed, then one large candle (the Paschal Candle) is lit and carried into the church. The light of the Paschal Candle signifies the Light of Christ, and all other candles are lit from it. This is a particularly powerful moment in the year of the Eastern Orthodox Church, when all the priests and the whole congregation keep shouting joyfully "Christ is Risen!", with the reply "He is risen indeed!". Just before, or during, this service the ornaments are brought back into the church and the veils are removed from the ornaments of the church.
Easter Day is the most joyous day of the church year, and is celebrated with Communion. The liturgical color is white.
The Easter season runs for 50 days, until Pentecost.
Ascension Day is also celebrated during the Easter season - it is the fortieth day after Easter Day, so always falls on a Thursday. It commemorates Jesus' ascension into heaven (Acts 1:3-11)

Pentecost (also called Whitsunday, because it was a day when Christians wore white robes) celebrates the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the disciples. The liturgical color is red.

The Sunday after Pentecost Sunday is called Trinity Sunday, and honors the Holy Trinity. The liturgical color is green.
The season of Trinity runs to the end of the liturgical year, and has an emphasis on spiritual growth and maturity of the believers.

The Four Cardinal Virtues are : Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude, Justice
The Three Theological Virtues are : Faith, Hope, Love
The Prime Theological Virtue is Love (Charity - love for God and neighbor, not sexual lust)
The Seven Deadly Sins are : pride, covetousness, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, sloth. Their opposites are humility, generosity, chastity, meekness, temperance, fraternal love, diligence.

The Nicene Creed was formulated by the Council of Constantinople in 381 to counteract various heretical ideas about the Nature of Christ.
It tells us about the three "Persons" of the Trinity :
God the Father is the Almighty, the Creator of everything. Everything depends upon God for its existence.
God the Son is of the same divine substance and essence as the Father. God the Son became fully human (as well as fully divine) for the sake of humanity. He revealed the Father to those on earth. The Son was the agent of Creation. The suffering and death of the Son have made salvation possible for humans. The Son will return, as the Risen Christ, to judge the world at the end of time.
God the Holy Spirit "proceeds" from the Father, and is of the same substance as the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit represents God's continuing presence in the world, and gives life to all of creation. He has animated, empowered, and guided the Church, and who helps believers and nurtures virtues such as love, patience, kindness.
The creed affirms the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting (heaven, in the presence of God, for those who entrusted themselves to Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior; hell, expelled from the presence of God, for those who did not trust him)
A later Council added the "Filioque" clause - that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son. ("Filioque" is Latin for "and the son".
The Eastern Churches do not accept the authority of the Council, on the grounds that it did not include representatives of the Eastern Churches. So the Filioque clause has become another factor in the split between Eastern and Western Churches.
The name "Creed" comes from the Latin "credo" - "I believe"

Christian monasticism began to develop in the third century, when Christians seeking a deeper relationship with God would leave the cities and go into the desert to be alone.
St. Anthony of Egypt is one famous early hermit, who went into the desert to be alone in 285, but had so many disciples who followed him that by 395 he had to organize some rules for their lives, including manual labor. At this stage, hermits usually lived and prayed alone.
Pachomius (ca. 292-348) a retired soldier, organized a communal form of society for monks, where they lived together in a building, rather than alone in caves.
As monasteries grew larger and attracted more monks, "rules" had to be formulated for their societies. Basil the Great (330-379) formulated the Eastern Rule, and Benedict of Nursia (480-547) formulated the Western Rule. Both require that monks and nuns make vows of "poverty, chastity, and obedience", and spend their days in communal worship, prayer, and manual work.
Monasticism spread throughout Europe and Russia, and monasteries served as centers for spiritual guidance, teaching, healing, and hospitality for wayfarers.

A development within monasticism was mysticism, where mystics sought to experience a closer union with God.
Christian mystics included :

Dr. Rollinson

Station 19
ENMU
Portales, NM 88130

Last Updated : June 10, 2023

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RELG 402 - World's Living Religions

General Notes for Christianity