RELG 402 - World's Living Religions

Introduction to Religion

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Religion

From the earliest ages of prehistory (before the invention of writing) human beings have engaged in activities which indicate a religious sense.
Prehistoric paintings deep within caves (Lascaux and Chauvet in southern France, Altamira in northern Spain) away from casual view, are believed to have been made with a magic or religious purpose, to ensure a successful hunt.
Some of the earliest figurines, carved from stone or molded from clay (from Willendorf in Austria, Hohle Fels in Germany, Brassempouy in France, Dolní Věstonice in the Czech republic, Çatalhöyük in Turkey) are of the type known to archaeologists as "Venus figures" - human females with exaggerated buttocks and breasts - which may indicate fertility cults.
By the Neolithic ages, the dead were buried, sometimes with grave goods, under or near the dwellings of the living, which indicates a concern for the after-life and maybe an ancestor cult.
At the caves of El Wad in Israel, skeletons from the Neolithic age were found buried with necklaces of sea-shells, or with the skull covered with dentalia shells (long tubular sea-shells).
At Jericho people of the PPNA (pre-pottery Neolithic A) culture kept skulls of the dead. The skulls were covered with plaster to model a face, with cowrie shells for eyes.
The early civilizations which arose in Egypt, Mesopotamia, around the Mediterranean, South America, all featured buildings which were used for religious purposes rather than for day-to-day living. Along with such buildings there is often evidence for a priesthood - individuals specially chosen to perform religious rituals on behalf of others.

So it seems that a characteristic of human beings is a concern with a reality greater than themselves, and this concern has come to be identified as religion.

Deity

Most religions have a central focus on the "divine", which may be described as "a reality greater than the human" Different religions have different views about the "divine". When studying a religion it is important to ask about some of the aspects of the "divine" :

• Is the "divine" one or many?
• Is the "divine" personal or impersonal?
• Is the "divine" without or within? (inside or outside a believer)
• Is the "divine" far or near?
• Is the "divine" transcendent of immanent?

Religions in which the "divine" is one are called monotheistic (one god). The three great monotheistic religions in the world today are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. There are also other monotheistic religions, eg. Zoroastrianism, Sikhism.
Religions in which the "divine" is many are called polytheistic (many gods). Hinduism, Shinto, and most indigenous religions are polytheistic.
Religions which hold that there are several gods/goddesses, but that one of them is superior to the others, are called henotheistic
Religions which hold that the divine is the same as the natural world (creation) are called Pantheistic
Religions which hold that there are many spirits associated with various natural features (lakes, trees, mountains, trees, etc.) , or that there are many spirits in charge of various aspects of the world, but that none of them is supremely powerful are called animistic
People who do not believe in any god/goddess/spirit are said to be atheistic or atheists (no god).
People who say that there is insufficient evidence to know whether or not there is a god/goddess/spirit are said to be agnostic (don't know).

There is an ontological argument, first proposed by Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) for the Being of one God :

If we mean by God "that than which nothing greater can be conceived" (id quo nihi majus cogitari possit), then we cannot conceive of such an entity except as existing.

In other words, the fact that we can conceive of something greater than anything else is proof that there is something greater than anything else, and such a something would be worthy of worship, and hence is God. Anselm used similar arguments to "prove" that God must be more holy, more powerful, more good, more true, and more beautiful, than anything else we can imagine.

The cosmological argument for the existence of God was put forward by St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), and states that everything has to come from something. One cannot make something out of nothing. Therefore there must have been a "First Cause" that created the "something" (the universe). That First Cause is God.

The teleological argument (or the argument from design) for the existence of God was put forward by William Paley (1734-1805). He illustrated it in the following way :

If you were walking on a heath and saw a watch on the ground you would assume that its parts had not come together by chance because it is too ordered and complicated. Therefore someone must have designed it or it would not work.
Because the universe is also ordered and complicated, someone must have designed that too. That someone is God.

Morality - it is generally held that everyone knows the difference between right and wrong - they 'know' that it is wrong to lie, cheat, murder, or hurt other people. The sense of morality has to come from somewhere. The source of morality is God - therefore God exists.

Religious experience - some people claim that they have had a religious experience eg, an answer to prayer, a voice or a vision, a sense of the presence of the divine, or a miraculous event. This points to the divine. Therefore there is a God.

Revelation

Revelation is the way in which the divine communicates with humans and reveals the truth to them.
There are two types of revelation :

• General revelation is indirect, and available to everyone. Some truths about the divine can be revealed by observing the natural world, and by reason, conscience, or moral sense.
• Special revelation is direct revelation by the divine to an individual or a group. This may come by dreams, visions, experience or prophecy.

Origins

Some religions have roots which go back to the prehistory of a culture and have no definite time of origin. Examples are Hinduism, Shinto, Chinese traditional religion, and indigenous religions such as those of the African and Native American peoples.
For some religions, there is a historical time when a person had a specific religious insight, or brought a revelation which led to the founding of the religion.

Texts

Every religion with a literate community of believers has a body of texts associated with the religion. Some of the texts may be regarded as divinely inspired scriptures (e.g. the Jewish Tanak, the Christian Bible, the Islamist Quran, the Zoroastrian Avesta), and hence as normative for the religion. Such sacred texts are often regarded as having been "revealed" (of divine authorship or inspiration).
They may have been revealed to one person over a short period of time (eg. the Quran, the Avesta), or to several people over several centuries (the Tanak, the Bible). They usually now have a "closed canon" - the canon of scripture can be neither added to nor decreased - no new writings can be added, no existing writings removed.

Other texts may be commentaries, hymns, prayers, devotional material written by members of the religion, stories from the history of the religion, etc. which are not regarded as divinely inspired and normative for the religion, but which may be used for worship, education, study, and the expression of the beliefs of the religion (creeds, confessions of faith, catechisms).

Some religions do not have sacred texts, either because their members do not have writing, or because their origins date to a very early period when there was no writing. These include many of the indigenous religions. They usually have a series of stories and legends which are communicated orally, and which may be altered when described or spoken of to outsiders (Navajo and Hopi traditions)

People

Most religions have one or more persons of special significance to the religion. They may be "founders" of the religion who were instrumental in starting the religion, either by starting a new religion (Zarathustra for Zoroastrianism, Moses for Judaism, Mohammed for Islam), or by making radical changes to an existing religion which resulted in the formation of a new religion (Buddha, from Hinduism to Buddhism; Hakim and Hamza from Islam to the Druze).
Such founders may be revered as embodiments of the Godhead (Jesus for Christianity, Krishna for ISKON), or as bringers of divine revelation (Moses for Judaism, Mohammed for Islam), or as persons who have had extremely deep insights into reality (the Buddha for Buddhism, Kung Fuzi (Confucius) for Confucianism).
The founders may have written texts which are regarded by the religion as sacred or of special significance (Mohammed for Islam, Laozi for Daoism), or their sayings and/or a record of their lives may have been recorded by disciples and then became part of the sacred canon (Buddha for Buddhism, Jesus for Christianity)

In addition to founding figures, there are usually a number of prominent figures who have influenced the development of a religion throughout its early years and its subsequent history. These are usually revered, but not worshipped (David and Isaiah for Judaism, Peter and Paul for Christianity). There are also those whose lives have demonstrated particular virtues (Francis of Assissi, Margaret of Scotland), or who have faced great persecution for their faith (the Martyrs of Japan, the Martyrs of Uganda), or who have contributed devotional practices to the religion (Antony of Egypt, Bernard of Clairvaux). These may be used as examples to encourage others to live lives worthy of the religion.

Some religions see all members as having equal positions within the religion (some groups of Rastafari), but most have some sort of authority structure or administrative organization. For example, most branches of Christianity have pastors, priests, presbyters or elders who teach and care for the spiritual growth of a local congregation. These in turn are usually under the care and supervision of more senior and experienced persons such as Senior pastors, bishops, superintendents. The authority structure may extend through several stages of seniority, to the state, diocese, province or regional level, to the national level, and to the global level (the Pope of the Roman Catholic branch of Christianity, the Dalai Lama of the Tibetan branch of Buddhism).
Examples of religious teachers are rabbis in Judaism, gurus and swamis for Hinduism, imams for Islam, shayks for the Sufi branch of Islam.

Examples of people who devote their lives to the spiritual quest ("holy men and women") are monks and nuns (Christianity, Buddhism), sadhus (Hinduism) and yogis (Hinduism, yoga). The head of a monastery may be called an abbot or prior (Christianity), an acharya (Hinduism).
Those whose lives are particularly exemplary, or who show special qualities or spiritual insights may be given the title of saint (Christianity, rishi (Hinduism), zaddik (the Hasidic branch of Judaism), seer, prophet.
Indigenous religions often have shamans, persons who have special relationships to the spiritual dimension, who can lead prayers and sings for healing, hunting, and in the past for warfare. The Navajo ha'atli leads Sings or Ways for healing. Navajo dancers may become the Ye'is they represent during the dance, as do Hopi kachina dancers.

Denominations, Sects, and Cults

During the historical development of a religion various people may have differing insights or opinions, or may stress different aspects of the religion. It also happens that the members of the religion may become lax in their observance of the requirements or life-style of the religion, until a reformer arises who calls them back to higher principles. In such cases there is usually a split between groups who change their practices or some minor aspects of their beliefs, but without changing their major beliefs. This results in groups within the religion, who are still members of the religion but who differ in practice or minor beliefs. In Christianity such groups are called denominations, or sometimes "Churches", eg. the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Methodists, Presbyterians, Anglicans, Episcopalians, Baptists, Mennonites, Lutherans.
Islam has Sunni and Shi'ite groups. Jains have Shvetambara and Digambara Jains. Buddhists have many "schools". Jews may belong to a Conservative, Orthodox, Reform, Hasidic, or other synagogue. Rastafari may belong to a "Mansion" such as Twelve Tribes, Niyabinghi, or Bobo Ashanti.
There may also be distinctions within a religion according to the nationality or language of members of the group. The Eastern Orthodox Churches of Christianity comprise Greek, Russian, Armenian, Ethiopian, and several more. Jews may be Ashkenazi (from central Europe and the Rhineland) or Sephardic (from Spain and Portugal). Buddhism has groups originating from Tibet (Tibetan Buddhism) or Japan (Zen Buddhism).

More radical or deeper changes may also occur, sometimes caused by a leader with a strong personality or with radical ideas about the religion. These result in a spectrum of differences between the parent religion and the new group. In the past such groups have sometimes been called sects or cults, but these terms have come to have negative implications, and are now often referred to as "New Religious Movements" or NRMs.
For general usage, I would define a sect as a large group of people within a religion, who have beliefs or practices which are markedly different from those of the main group, but who still identify themselves as members of the main religion, and are recognized as such by other members of the religion. I would define a cult as a smaller group of people who follow a particular leader or set of teachings or beliefs, even though doing so may bring them into dangerous circumstances or clashes with other members of the parent religion or with society in general.

Some clarification needs to be made between a "faith" and a "religion".
A "faith" is a set of beliefs associated with a religion.
A "religion" refers to a distinct system of belief, and also to the rituals and organization of the members, eg. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism.
A "denomination" refers to a smaller group within a religion - eg. for Christianity (the religion) denominations include the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the United Methodist Church, the Baptists, the Church of Christ - they are all "Christian", with a common set of basic beliefs, but they have variations in belief and practice.
A "sect" refers to a smaller group which is on the fringe of a main religion, and which usually has strict rules for membership, and often obeys the teaching of just one person.

Places

Many religions have particular places which they hold in special regard or even hold as sacred. These may be associated with the founder of the religion - Mecca (Islam), Bethlehem (Christianity), or with historical events of the religion - the Western Wall in Jerusalem (Judaism), Rome (Christianity)
They may be believed to have special properties such as healing or cleansing - the River Ganges in India (Hinduism), Lourdes in France (the Roman Catholic Church of Christianity).
Other places may be venerated because of their outstanding features - Mount Fuji in Japan (Shinto), Mount Taishan (China), Mount Taylor (Navajo), Mount Sinai (Judaism and Christianity).
The city of Jerusalem is a sacred place for three religions - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

In addition to such revered places, all religions have places where the sacred and the mundane come together - these may be public or private shrines, or buildings such as synagogues (Judaism), churches (Christianity), mosques (Islam), gurdwaras (Sihkism), kivas (pueblo, Hopi, Navajo), stupas (Buddhism), or temples (Hinduism).
Religious buildings may have a variety of uses - public and private worship; religious ceremonies and festivals; teaching and religious education; life rituals such as naming, marriage, and funerals; and administrative offices for the religious leaders and organization.

Worship

Worship is an act of homage to a deity or deities.
Worship may be private or public, individual or communal. If communal, it may be led by a designated leader(s). It may be spontaneous, or may be performed according to some traditional liturgy or ritual.
Worship may take place anywhere - in a designated building (church, synagogue, mosque, kiva), in a private home, or in the open.
Worship may take place at specific days and times, or at special times of the year, or it may be a spontaneous reaction of the worshiper involved.
Worship may include a meal in the presence of the deity (the Jewish Seder, Christian Communion or Mass).
Worship may involve sacrifice, adoration, prayer, thanksgiving, singing, chanting, music, dance, or other rituals.

Prayer

Prayer is communication between a person and a deity.

• Prayer may be individual (one-on-one) or communal (corporate - a group of people praying together).
• Prayer may be carried out in public or in private.
• Prayer may take the form of words spoken, chanted or sung aloud (verbal prayer) or formed silently in the mind (mental prayer). It may be carried out without words, by being silent in the presence of a deity, in which case it may be called adoration.
  If words are used, they may be spontaneous (the person speaks his/her own words from the heart), or they may be in the form of an existing Prayer, either memorized or read from a book, eg. the Lord's Prayer, or one written by a spiritual leader or other person.
• Prayer may be performed at set times during the day (eg. on arising and going to bed, thanks or grace before and/or after meals), or at particular times of the year, or may be spontaneous as occasions arise. Some people aim for a life of continuous prayer - the "Jesus Prayer" is used by some Eastern Orthodox Christians who pray it with every breath that they take.
• Prayer may be for oneself, or may be on behalf of others.
• A variety of postures may accompany prayer - kneeling, standing, sitting, lying prostrate before the deity. Some religions specify in which direction one should face when praying (Jews pray facing towards Jerusalem, Muslims pray facing towards Mecca, many Christian church buildings face East - the direction in which Christ is to come).
• Various actions may accompany prayer - holding the hands together and/or closing the eyes (such actions are done to reduce distraction while praying), raising the hands, clapping the hands, holding hands with others, laying hands on someone. In some religions prayer is accompanied by dancing or other movements of the body (Jewish Hasidim sway back and forth while praying.
  Sufi Dervishes dance and spin on one leg, many Native Americans dance for hours in the presence of their deities). The head may be bowed to acknowledge the superiority of the deity.

There are several types of prayer, all or several of which may be used during one time of prayer.

• Petition, or petitionary prayer, involves asking the deity for something - either something material (eg. wealth, a spouse, a pony) or immaterial (eg. health, holiness, a calm temper)
• Intercession, or intercessory prayer, involves asking the deity to grant something to someone else (eg. healing, protection, peace)
• Supplication is another term used for either petition or intercession.
• Confession may be a prayer in which the person acknowledges sins of commission (wrong things done) and/or omission (things which should have been done but were not.) Confession is usually accompanied by a prayer for pardon and a resolution to avoid the sin in future.
• Thanksgiving is prayer in which one thanks the deity for gifts received, either material or immaterial, and for prayers answered. Thanksgiving may also be given in advance of receiving the gifts, in faith that they will be given in due time.
• Praise is a form of prayer which may be private or communal, in which a person does not ask for anything, but focuses on the attributes and actions of the deity. Praise is usually accompanied by thanksgiving for those attributes and actions.
• Contemplation, or contemplative prayer, is a form of meditation, in which a person uses a text, picture, or other spiritual aid to help focus the mind on some aspect of the deity.
• Adoration is usually silent, with the person silent in the presence of the deity, and conscious of the presence of the deity. It is the manifestation of submission to the absolute Lordship of the deity, and the acknowledgment of dependence upon the deity.
  A distinction must be made between "adoration" and "veneration". Adoration is due to the deity alone, and as an act of worship. Veneration is the honor and respect shown to holy people such as saints, and holy objects such as relics of saints - it may have rituals associated with it, but it should never approach the level of adoration.
  Some religions (Sunni Moslems, Jehovah's Witnesses, Quakers, Orthodox Judaism) forbid veneration on the grounds that it encroaches upon adoration and becomes idolatrous.
• Some religions require a person to make special preparations before prayer (Muslims should wash hands, arms, and feet).
• In some cases fasting may precede prayer.
• Various actions may be carried out either as an aid to prayer or as required by a religion - candles may be lit and burned, bells or gongs sounded, incense or paper effigies may be burned.
• Some religions, e.g. Tibetan Buddhism, may use prayer flags or prayer wheels - a prayer is made with each revolution of the wheel or movement of the flag.

Meditation

Meditation is a search for meaning. Different religions have differing reasons and methods for meditation, but all involve use of the mind and an altered state of consciousness. In a Christian context meditation is equivalent to the term contemplation, which is regarded as one of the forms of prayer.
In a secular context meditation may be used to bring relaxation and a sense of peace. In a religious context, meditation is often used to bring people to a deeper understanding of some spiritual truth, either about themselves or about the deity.

Meditation seeks to focus the mind, but long periods of spiritual attentiveness are difficult to achieve, so religions use a variety of aids such as certain postures, reading sacred or devotional texts, gazing at sacred objects such as icons or beautiful natural objects, reciting mantras.

Meditation should engage our thoughts, imagination, emotions, and desires. The result should be a deeper faith, a stronger will, and an alignment of the person with the commands and will of the deity.
Meditation should result in a sense of peace and relaxation, an increase in internal energy or the life force, and heightened patience, compassion, love, generosity and forbearance towards others. Regular meditation should enable people to be aware of the deity even while performing their daily routine.

In some religions there are, or have been, people who experienced such an alignment of their will with that of the deity that they entered into another state of consciousness, sometimes called divine union or mystical marriage. Such people are called mystics, and are often regarded as saints.

• The best-known posture for meditation is the Buddhist and Hindu practice of sitting in the "Lotus Position", with a straight back, legs crossed, hands in the lap. However, many other postures may be used - some Hindus stand on their heads or stand on one leg.
• Control of the breathing may be a feature of the control of the body (Moslem Sufis, Hindu swamis).
• Various forms of Prayer Beads may be used by Hindus, Moslems, and Christians as an aid to meditation and prayer. The Roman Catholic Rosary has five sets of 10 beads, so three "Rosaries" equals 150, which is the number of Psalms in the Book of Psalms. Each "decade" of 10 beads is associated with a "mystery" for prayer and reflection. The Hindu japa mala has 108 beads, which is a number of significance for Hindus. The Muslim mishbaha has 99 beads (for the 99 Names of God).
  
• Icons are religious paintings used by some of the Eastern Orthodox Christians to help lead their minds to a deeper level. For this reason icons are not naturalistic representations, but follow strict guidelines for their preparation or "writing".
  
• Repeating a mantra over and over is often used by Hindus and Buddhists. The mantra may be a traditional short saying, or the Hindu word "Aum", or may be a phrase given to a student by a spiritual master or guide. Moslems may repeat the 99 Names of God, and Christians may use the Jesus Prayer.
• A form of Christian meditation is Lectio Divina (Holy reading). There are four steps : lectio, meditatio, oratio, contemplatio (I read, I meditate, I pray, I contemplate or adore). Passages of scripture are the usual objects of Lectio Divina.
• In the 6th century Zen Buddhists in Japan introduced the use of "Zen Gardens" for meditation, and by the 1200s the design of a Zen Garden had become standardized, and has remained so to the present. A Zen Garden usually has no plants, or only a bed of very low-growing ground-cover, and is designed to be without water. A flat expanse of raked gravel or crushed granite (not sand) represents the sea, and a few lichen-covered rocks represent mountains and islands. Each rock and pattern of sand is interrelated and has meaning. The garden is usually fenced off from the rest of the landscape, and has a bench or raised porch for people to sit quietly and gaze at the garden. The aim is to achieve a sense of peace and order, for quiet contemplation.

Pilgrimage

A pilgrimage is a journey, taken either alone or in company with other pilgrims, to visit a sacred place, or aplace associated with some holy person or significant event for the religion.

One of the Five Pillars of Islam is the requirement that a Muslim make the Hajj - to visit Mecca if at all possible. After having done so, they may use the title Hajji with their name.

Baha'is were originally required to visit two places - the House of Bahá'u'lláh in Baghdad, Iraq, and the House of the Bab in Shiraz, Iran. However, with the present political climate, it is not possible for most Baha'is to visit those places, so a third place has been designated, the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh in Haifa, Israel. Their pilgrimage consists of nine days of visits to holy places around the Baha'i World Center in Haifa.

Hindus visit the River Ganges to bathe in it and wash away their sins during the Kumbh Mehla, which takes place every twelve years. It is the largest gathering on earth of human beings, and is a major problem for crowd control and safety. Hindus also have many lesser shrines and temples that are centers for pilgrims.

Sikhs do not place much emphasis on pilgrimages - they see contemplation on God's name as being the great pilgrimage. However, they do have a special regard for the Golden Temple, Harmandir Sahib, in Amritsar as being their spiritual and cultural center, and may make a pilgrimage to it.

Buddhists have four sacred places for pilgrimage : Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini, Nepal; the place of Buddha's enlightenment, at Bodh Gaya; the place where he gave his first sermon, at Samath; and the place where he died, Kusinagar, in India.
They also have other places for pilgrimages, mainly throughout Asia, but also some in the U.S.A. where they may visit stupas, which are pillars containing relics of some holy person.

Chinese who follow their traditional religious practices may make pilgrimages to Mount Tai-Shan or several other sacred mountains in China.

Japanese members of Shinto also have several sacred mountains (eg. Mount Fuji) and shrines which they visit.

The Navajo have four sacred mountains, where Ha'atli (shamans) go to collect earth for their medicine bundles.

Christians have a variety of places which they may visit for religious and devotional purposes, or for prayers for healing, or for reported appearances of the Virgin Mary.
The Holy Land itself is the main place for Christian pilgrimages, as it is so closely associated with events in the life of Jesus.
Mount Sinai and St. Catherine's monastery in the Sinai desert are associated with Moses receiving the Ten Commandments, and receiving God's call when he went to see the burning bush (Exodus chapters 3 & 19-20).
Greece, Turkey, and the Aegean islands are associated with the missionary journeys of St. Paul and his companions, and the island of Patmos is associated with the St. John the Apostle and the Book of Revelation.
Rome is associated with Saints Peter and Paul, who were both martyred there.
The Way of St. James to Santiago de Compostella in Spain is at the end of a long course of pilgrim paths through Europe.
The Isle of Iona off the West coast of Scotland was the site of one of the earliest monasteries in Britain. The monastery was founded in 563 by Columba, an Irish missionary, and became a center for missions to the Picts of Scotland and the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria. It is now the center for the Iona Community, an ecumenical Christian community and a force in the revival of Celtic traditions in Christianity.
Walsingham in England commemorates the appearance of the Virgin Mary to a Saxon noblewoman, Richeldis de Faverches, in 1061. It has been a center for pilgrimages ever since that time.
Canterbury is the site of the first cathedral in England, where in 597 St. Augustine of Canterbury brought Christianity to King Æthelberht and the pagan Anglo-Saxons, and where Thomas a Becket was murdered in 1170 for resisting the authoritarian King Stephen. It has been a center for pilgrims since Chaucer's day (1300s)
El Santuario de Chimayó, north of Santa Fe in New Mexico, is where healings have been reported since before 1813. A private chapel was built in 1813, and a large church in 1816. The site was given to the Archdiocese of Santa Fe in 1929. It is one of the most visited centers for pilgrimages in the USA.
Lourdes. in France, is where the Virgin Mary appeared to Bernadette Soubirous in 1858, and where some people experience healing from various diseases.
Fátima, in Portugal, is where three peasant children saw the Virgin Mary in 1917.
Medugorge, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, has been a center for pilgrimages since 1981, when the Virgin Mary appeared to six children.
The Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City in Mexico is said to be the most visited Roman Catholic pilgrimage site in the world, and the world's third most-visited sacred site. It commemorates the appearance of the Virgin Mary to an Aztec peasant named Juan Diego, in 1531.
Lalibela, in Ethiopia, in northern Africa, is a great center for members of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. It was built by King Lalibela in 1187. The king had been to Jerusalem, and built a symbolic Jerusalem by cutting churches out of the solid rock of the region.
Axum, also in Ethiopia, has what is believed to be the Ark of the Covenant, kept at the old Cathedral of St. Mary of Zion. A monk is appointed as guardian of the Ark - after his appointment he spends the rest of his life confined to the chapel, praying before the Ark and offering incense. The church dates back to the 4th century, and was the place where the Emperors of Ethiopia were crowned.
Even in Russia, after a century of the communist atheist regime, there are still monasteries where Russian Orthodox Christians go on pilgrimage.

For those who could not travel so far, the medieval church adapted the labyrinth as an alternative to the pilgrim journey - one could walk slowly though the winding path of the labyrinth to the center, taking time to pray along the way. It could be thought of as representing either a journey to the Holy Land, or a journey through life itself. Chartres Cathedral, in France, has a labyrinth which dates to the twelfth century. A modern labyrinth has been built in the floor of Grace Cathedral in San Francisco.

Retreat

A retreat involves withdrawing from some of the "busy-ness" of one's life, usually for several days or even weeks, and spending time with God, often with some other person(s) as spiritual helpers.
The main reason for going on a retreat is to spend time with God, and get closer to Him, but one can also go on a retreat in order to set one's priorities right, or to prepare for some special task, or to try to discern what one should do in the future or at some particular point in one's life.

Music

Music, either vocal and/or instrumental is an important feature of most religions. Music can express deep feelings without using words, and the rhythms of music evoke feelings and emotions at the level of the subconscious.

Drums give a basic rhythm to a chant or dance. In some religions (Rastafari, Haitian Voodoo) various drums have specific functions and have religious implications which are not told to outsiders.

Musical instruments such as flutes, woodwinds, strings, bells, and pipe-organs may be used either alone or in concert.

Chants and hymns may be accompanied by instruments, or may be sung a capella. They may take the form of congregational singing, or may have a solo leader with a congregational response, or may be led or performed by a choir or a solo singer. They may be used for praise, for invocation, for laments, or in several other ways. Chants are an essential part of Navajo Ways or Sings.

Music may be accompanied by dance, as another way of expressing emotions which cannot be expressed in words alone. The Sufi Whirling Dervishes use their dance to carry them into a higher spiritual realm. Most Native American religions use dance to invoke the spiritual realm, and believe that the spirits join them in the dance.

Sacrifice

Animal sacrifice was practiced by both Judaism and Hinduism in their early history, but they no longer do so now-a-days. The Samaritans still sacrifice lambs for Passover. There are reports that the Hopi perform the ritual killing of a young eagle, so that he may carry a message to the spirit world.

For Christians, the death of Jesus on the Cross is seen as the supreme sacrifice which has nullified the need for any further sacrificial deaths. Communion or the Mass is linked to that sacrifice, though different denominations have differing understandings of what happens during Communion.

Time

Most religions have a calendar of events which they celebrate through the year. They may have weekly and daily rituals or times of prayer and devotion which are required of their members. There may be a requirement to pray at certain times of the day.
There may be a requirement to meet together for worship, or to cease mundane work, on a specific day of the week.

As a matter of convenience, most countries in the world date the years according to the "Common Era", which is basically the Christian dating, but using B.C.E. (Before Common Era) for B.C. (Before Christ), and C.E. (Common Era) for A.D. (Anno Domini - Year of the Lord)
However, some religious groups keep to other systems.
Moslems use A.H. (Anno Hejira), using the date of Mohammed's flight (Hejira) to Medina in 622 AD. as their starting year.
Israel (though not Jews world-wide) uses the probable date when King David took Jerusalem (ca. 1,000 BC) as its foundation year.
The calendar may be solar (based on the solstices and the movement of the sun) or lunar (based on the phases of the moon), or it may be a mixture of both. The Jewish calendar was originally lunar. The Christian calendar inherited some of the Jewish festivals (lunar), but also incorporated newer festivals (solar); hence the dates of Easter and Pentecost are defined by the moon, but Christmas is a fixed date.

The religious or liturgical year may start at different dates in the common year.
The Jewish New Year is Rosh Ha-shanah (Head of the Year), which occurs in September-October, the start of the Jewish month of Tishrei, although the Jewish year starts with the month of Nisan in March-April - this reflects the combination of a year which was based on the completion of the harvest with a year based on the first sowing of seed.

The Western Christian secular New Year is January 1, but the liturgical year starts with the First Sunday of Advent, the date of which is variable (4 Sundays before Christmas Day). The Eastern Orthodox and Ethiopian Orthodox Churches use the Julian Calendar rather than the Gregorian Calendar, and may celebrate Easter at a different time from the Western Churches.

The Islamic year is lunar, and has 354 days. It starts with the first day of the month of Muharram, which at present occurs in November.

The Baha'i year starts with the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere (March 21) and has a year consisting of 19 months of 19 days each.

The Hindu and Sikh year (lunar) starts in March-April, and signals the start of the Wheat harvest.
Jains use the Hindu calendar of months, but start their year with Diwali in October.

Life-stages

Most religions celebrate various human life-stages - birth, puberty, marriage, death.

Initiation into the religion may be performed soon after birth, or on attaining what is regarded as the age for mature decisions.
For Jews, boys are circumcised by a Mohel eight days after birth, in accordance with God's command (Genesis 17:10-13)

Moslem boys are circumcised as 13-year-olds - the age at which Ishmael was circumcised by Abraham (Genesis 17:23-27), although there is no command for this in the Quran.

Children born to Shinto families are taken to a Shinto shrine, boys when they are 31 days old, girls when they are 33 days old - this is called the Miyamairi (shrine visit). A Shinto priest prays over the baby and recites the baby's name and the names of the baby's parents. The family drinks sake together, and pays the shrine a considerable fee for the ceremony (¥5,000 - ¥10,000).

Christians may be baptized soon after birth (Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, Episcopalians) though some denominations prefer that a person be capable of making a mature decision and declaration of faith before baptism. In the case of infant baptism it is expected that the child will grow up to make a mature declaration of faith, when "Confirmation" will take place.

At puberty, and the attainment of what is reckoned to be the ability to make a mature decision, there may be a rite of initiation.
For Jews, at about the age of thirteen, a boy will become a "Son of the Covenant" (Bar Mitzvah) at a ceremony where he reads a passage from the Torah publicly for the first time. Jewish girls now have a similar ceremony where they become a "Daughter of the Covenant" (Bat Mitzvah).

For Christians, the sacrament of Confirmation may be celebrated, with a public profession of faith, and the laying on of hands with prayer for the reception of the Holy Spirit.

For Hindus, there is the ceremony of the "Sacred Thread" whereby a young person is given permission to study the ancient Vedic scriptures.

For Zoroastrians, a young person takes on adult responsibilities and is shown how to tie the kushti (sacred cord) at a Navjote ceremony.

Navajo and Pueblo boys are initiated into a kiva between the ages of ten and twelve. Navajo girls have a Kinaalda ceremony which takes several days.

Marriage may be celebrated by various ceremonies.

A Jewish couple sign a marriage contract, and are married under a chuppah (canopy) which represents their new home, and usually exchange rings (worn on the right index finger) and sip a glass of wine together.

A Christian couple are usually married in a Church, with the exchange of vows and rings, in the presence of a minister as witness.

Hindu couples have a marriage celebration in front of a sacred fire. They hold hands before the fire, to signify their union, and take seven steps together exchanging vows together at each step. They may walk around the fire with their garments tied together, or the groom may lead the bride around the fire. Then they and their families have a feast.

A Sikh wedding must take place in a gurudwara, before the Guru Ganth Sahib (the Sikh holy book). During the ceremony hymns are sung as the bride and groom walk around the Guru Granth Sahib.

Zoroastrians have several ceremonies which take place before the actual wedding. The Avesta (Zoroastrian scriptures) teach that adulthood is attained at the age of 15, and that a man or woman may marry at that age. However, in India, where most Zoroastrians live, it is not legal for them to marry until a man is 21 and a woman is 18, unless their parents sign their approval on the marriage certificate. Marriage is usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom, with the consent of the bride and groom. Before the wedding a betrothal takes place, when the women of both families visit each other's home and exchange gifts. The bride takes her husband's name at this ceremony, even though the marriage has not yet taken place. There is another visit and exchange of gifts, during which the bride and groom exchange rings. Three days before the wedding there is another exchange of gifts, the groom's family brings gifts of clothes and jewelry to the bride, and families and friends have a traditional meal together.
The marriage ceremony itself takes four days. On the first of these days a tree is planted near the door of the house, On the next two days there are ceremonies in honor of the dead. On the fourth day, both bride and groom take baths and dress in ceremonial dresses, the bride's being white. In the evening of that day families and friends form a procession and go with gifts to the groom's house, then to the bride's house, where the marriage will occur. The assembly of witnesses, family members, and two Zoroastrian priests wait at the bride's house until the groom arrives. A series of rituals is performed, for purification and protection from evil, and candles are lit (fire is the main symbol in Zoroastrianism). The priests ask if both bride and groom consent to the wedding, then the senior priest joins the couple's right hands and binds them together while reciting a prayer and blessing the couple. A series of questions and responses follows, and more prayers and songs. A wedding feast concludes the ceremony.

At death, most religions have specific ways to celebrate the life of the deceased and to dispose of the corpse. The funeral rites are usually very closely linked to their beliefs about life after death. Funeral rites are very important because they give the relatives and friends of the deceased time to mourn and show their grief. Being able to show grief and to have a period of mourning helps the bereaved through their loss.
Burial in the ground is common (Judaism, Christianity, Islam). Hindus may burn the body in a special place. Zoroastrians put the body in a tower open to the sky, a dakhma, (Tower of Silence), until scavenger birds have taken the flesh and all that is left are dry bones. The bones are then mixed with lime until they disintegrate.

Death

Birth and death are the two things in life we can be sure about. Everything else ‘might’ happen to us: we might go to school, graduate, get married, have children, open our own business, write a book, or travel the world, but the only real certainty is that once we are born we are going to die.
It is not surprising that people ask questions about what, if anything, happens when and after they die.
Although some people report that they have had "near-death experiences" and others claim to be able to communicate with those who have died, or to have seen ghosts, there is no scientific proof that such experiences actually provide a glimpse into a possible afterlife.
Most religions have ideas about what happens after death, and its relation to how one lived ones life on earth. The details vary between religions, but belief in an afterlife almost always serves to help people make sense of life, particularly when life seems unfair, or at times of suffering - their own, and other people’s. It provides a purpose to life, and gives support and comfort at times of loss and bereavement.

Most religions teach that a person will continue to exist in some manner after death. Judaism is exceptional in that Jews do not consider individual existence after death to be a matter of great importance - it is more important to them that the Jewish people and religion survive.

Religions originating in India (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism) usually teach that a soul is reincarnated into another earthly body after death, and that the form in which one is reincarnated is determined by one's karma - the good and bad deeds that one has done in the past life.
Buddhism sees the way out of this cycle of death and rebirth as being attainable through renunciation and meditation.

Many other religions teach that there is an "after-life" in a region beyond this world - often there is a region of bliss (heaven) for those who have done what the religion sees as "good", and a region of punishment (hell) for those who have done evil.
Christianity recognizes that everyone does bad things during life, and teaches that entry into heaven is not so much a reward for good actions, as a gracious gift of the deity, which is offered by Christ, and which can be accepted or refused by a person.

Good and Evil

Most religions have a concept of "good" and "evil". Nearly all religious leaders and sacred texts encourage believers to live "good" lives - though their views on what is good or bad behavior (or sin) may very considerably.
There are also differences in the way in which various religions view suffering.
Moral philosophy defines two types of evil :

• Moral or Human evil is suffering caused by human actions in ways which are considered morally wrong - murder, rape, theft, terrorism, cheating, hate speech, torture, gossip, slander.
• Natural evil is suffering caused by natural disasters which are not caused by humans - earthquakes, tsunamis, tornados, floods, drought. Natural evil may be exacerbated by the accompaniment of human evil - when looters ransack homes after an earthquake, or merchants increase their prices to make a profit out of goods in short supply after a disaster, or unscrupulous developers build homes over an earthquake fault.

Evil is a cause of suffering. Suffering is a result of evil. But the person suffering is often the victim, not the perpetrator, of the evil.

Gender

Most religious leaders in the past have been male, though there have been female leaders in the past and also in the present (Ellen White - Seventh Day Adventism; Mary Baker Eddy - Christian Science; Helena Blavatsky - Theosophy; Nakayama Miki - Tenrikyo; Kitamura Sayo - Odoru Shukyo; Guanyin - a female bodhisattva in Chinese Mahayana Buddhism; Mazu - in Chinese traditional religion, a fisherman's daughter who saved her brothers from drowning and eventually became the wife of the Jade Emperor (the High God of Chinese traditional religion) and hence the Empress of Heaven)

Most religions recognize that men and women have different roles in life. This is often reflected by the roles men and women play in the religion. Leadership has often been restricted to men, though with the rise of feminism more opportunities have opened up for women to participate in the organization and hierarchy of religious organizations.

Sikhs have no priests at all (though they do have "guardians of the Guru Granth Sahib" - usually male), and men and women are treated as equals - women can lead prayers, perform ceremonies, and participate in all religious affairs.
Shinto and Taoism are open to both priests and priestesses. Hinduism has female deities as well as male deities, and can have priests and gurus of either sex. Baha'i and Quakers claim equality of the sexes.
The Salvation Army has allowed the ordination of women to the ministry since its inception, and some of the Generals of the Salvation Army have been women.
Jehovah's witnesses allow women to become ordained ministers, as they hold that baptism confers ordination to the ministry. However, they do not allow women to become elders or deacons, or to perform baptisms, weddings or funerals.
Orthodox Judaism does not allow women to become rabbis or cantors, but some of the other branches of Judaism allow female ordination and allow women to become rabbis and cantors, and there has been at least one female Hasidic rebbe (Hannah Rachel Verbermacher of Ludmir, in the 19th century)
Latter Day Saints (Mormons) do not ordain women, who usually serve in unpaid positions in the church.
Neither the Roman Catholic Church nor the Eastern Orthodox Churches ordain women to the priesthood, though women may be consecrated as nuns.
Some Moslem groups allow women to lead the prayers of a congregation of women, but not to lead prayers for a congregation containing men.
Most other religions allot differing roles to men and women - these may or may not be of equal consequence, and the differences can be a bone of contention for women in the religion.

Action

Most religions have a code of ethical behavior which involves care for other people - either for humanity in general, or at least for fellow-members of the religion.
Hospitals and universities were originally founded by religious groups; monasteries cared for the poor and the sick in a community.
Some religions go further, with regard for all living creatures and for the environment in general - Jain monks wear a mask to prevent inhaling small living organisms, and they avoid the use of wheeled vehicles because the wheels might kill small creatures in the ground.

Society

Most religions try to influence the values and decisions of society around them, with an aim of encouraging more ethical behavior and actions.
However, there may be conflicts with the prevailing views of society, resulting in a "church" vs. "state" situation.
Such areas are the moral/ethical positions on : abortion, on sexual conduct and expression, on warfare and pacifism, on marriage and divorce, on slavery and fair working conditions, on equal-opportunity laws, on the teaching of what may be deemed "religious doctrines" in publicly-funded schools, on genetic engineering and other scientific experiments, and on the relationship to other religious groups within the same population.

Some societies and countries are so dominated by a religion that the religious leaders have equal or more power than the secular president or other ruler, and the whole country is ruled by religious laws such as the Sharia laws of Islam.

Syncretism

Syncretism is the tendency for members of a religion to incorporate elements, beliefs, or spiritual practices from another religion.
Many of the newer religious movements are syncretistic. Rastafari incorporates the Jewish figure of the Messiah, and some of the Jewish food laws, with Black Power teachings. Theosophy combines some Hindu practices with belief in the "Ascended Masters" who are similar to the extra-terrestrials of UFO cults. The New Age movement incorporates rituals from most of the world religions, mixed in with other philosophies and spiritual practices, its focus is human potential rather than worship of a deity.

Copyright © 2015 Shirley J. Rollinson, all Rights Reserved

Dr. Rollinson

Station 19, ENMU
Portales, NM 88130

Last Updated : June 10, 2023

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