RELG 402 - World's Living Religions
Islam
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Because Islam arose in the Arab culture, the texts and terms used were originally written in Arabic. Arabic uses a different alphabet to the Latin alphabet used by English-speaking cultures. There are some sounds and letters in Arabic which do not correspond exactly to English; also there are various dialects of Arabic, in which words are pronounced differently. Hence, when Arabic words are transliterated into English, the spelling may vary - so Koran or Quran refer to the same book, Salaam or Salam both refer to the same quality (peace), Mohammed may also be spelled Muhammed or Mahomet, and Moslem may also be spelled Muslim or Musselman.
When reading Islamic material, one sometimes meets the abbreviation "pbuh" after the name of God, or of religious leaders such as Mohammed and Moses - this refers to the standard phrase "peace be upon him"
Islam was founded by the prophet Muhammad, who received the Qu'ran - the holy scriptures of Islam, from Allah (God) around A.D. 610.
"Islam" is an Arabic word meaning "submission", and teaches submission to God. Islam maintains that Muhammad is the last in a long line of holy prophets, preceded by Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Jesus is regarded as a human prophet, who was succeeded by Mohammed.
Allah
Islam stresses the oneness of God - this is expressed by the term "tawhid" - God is a perfect unity, a power to Himself and utterly and purely One. Allah has no partners, is omniscient (knows all things), is omnipotent (can do anything, is all-powerful), is the one God of all time and all human beings.
Surah 112 of the Quran states
He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; None is born of Him, nor is He born; And there is none like Him.
Tawhid is also a call to Muslims to live their lives utterly devoted to the One God, whom they call Allah. Their faith is called imam, and their obedient lifestyle is Islam. Nubuwwa is the term for prophecy, whereby Allah reveals his will to humanity. Prophets are sent to bring the message of tawhid to mankind, and to call people to submit to the will of Allah. So Islam recognizes Moses as a prophet, sent to the people of those times.
Shirk is anything which gets in the way of a Moslem's obedience to Allah; this includes idolatry, preoccupation with material wealth, impulsive or arrogant behavior, polytheism (associating anything else with Allah), imagining Allah as a human being or having the qualities of a human being. Shirk also includes doing "good works" or praying, or going on the Hajj just to draw attention to oneself, and by swearing by anything other than Allah.
The 99 names of Allah - the "Most Beautiful Names" -
Many different names are used to describe Allah in the Qur’an and the Hadith. These are sometimes referred to as "the 99 names of Allah".
Allah cannot be described by any or all of these names but they help Moslems to think about Allah’s unknowable nature.
Many Moslems recite the names as one of the forms of dhikr, to get close to Allah. Some Muslims use prayer beads to help them remember as they recite the names.
Abu Huraira (Hadith, Book 035, Number 6475) reported the Prophet Muhammad as saying, "There are 99 names of Allah. He who commits them to memory would get into paradise."
Some of the names are
- Al-Rahman, the All-beneficent (the Compassionate)
- Al-Rahim, the Most Merciful
- Al-Aziz, the Almighty (the Victorious)
- Al-Hakam, the Judge
The Qur'an or Koran
Scripture is the most important type of revelation for Moslems. The Qur’an is a special revelation from Allah to Muhammad. It was revealed to him in Arabic. The Qur’an is therefore different from any other book for Moslems because it contains the words of Allah.
The Qur’an has 114 Surahs (chapters). These are arranged by length, rather than in chronological order.
In AD 611 Muhammad was meditating in a cave when the Angel Jibril (Gabriel) appeared to him. Three times Jibril ordered him to "recite". Surah 96:1-5
Proclaim! In the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, who created – created man, out of a clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And thy Lord Is Most Bountiful! He who taught the use of the pen taught man that which he knew not.
Then Jibril told Muhammad that he was to be the messenger of Allah. The revelations continued for 23 years, until the final Surah (5:4):
This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed My favor upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion.
The Qur'an is written in Arabic, and Moslems regard it as the literal unchanged words of Allah. It is a direct revelation from Allah to humanity, and is unchanging and unchangeable. It is the last and most complete book of guidance from Allah and applies to all people forever. Because the Qur’an is the word of Allah it cannot be criticised, and it must be read and studied in Arabic. The true meaning of the text can only be found in the Arabic - although versions of the Qur'an are available in other languages Moslems do not regarded them as translations.
In his sermon on Mount Arafat, Muhammad declared that the Qur'an was the final revelation: "No prophet or messenger will come after me and no new faith will emerge."
The Five Pillars of Islam
In addition to being ruled by the Quran, Muslims are devoted to the worship of Allah through the "Five Pillars of Islam"
- Shahada - the declaration of faith : "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet"
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Salat - Prayer, specific prayers to be prayed five times a day while facing Mecca - Zakat - Almsgiving - giving money to the poor
- Sawm - Fasting during Ramadan, in the ninth month of the Muslim year
- Hajj - Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a life-time, if possible
Mecca is the holiest place for Islam - the whole city is regarded as a sanctuary. Fighting and bloodshed are forbidden. Non-Muslims are not allowed to visit Mecca.
In the center of Mecca there is a shrine with a huge cubic building in the center - this is the Kaaba. It is covered by black and brown drapery. In one corner is a piece of a large black meteorite (but this is usually kept covered and out of sight). The Quran refers to the Kaaba as "The House of God". It is believed to have been built by Adam, purified by Abraham, and re-built by Mohammed. Muslims face towards Mecca and the Kaaba when they pray.
The Hajj is the obligatory pilgrimage to Mecca which every Moslem should strive to make at least once during his life.
The Sunnah
After the Qur'an, the next most important source of authority for Moslems is the Sunnah. This refers to the traditions about Muhammad which are recorded in the Hadith and other texts. They include records of the practices and customs of the early Islamic community.
Some of Muhammad’s followers memorized his teachings while he was alive. Later on these were written down and then collections were made of them. Different groups of Muslims use different collections of Hadith as sources of authority.
Jerusalem
Muhammad's Night Journey - Mention of Muhammad's Night Journey is made in the Qur'an, and more details are given in the Hadith.
Probably around the year 621, when Muhammad was in Mecca, the angel Jibril came to him bringing Buraq, the heavenly steed of the prophets. Buraq is described as being smaller than a mule, but larger than a donkey, and with a white coat and a beautiful face. Muhammad mounted Buraq, who brought him in one short step to the "furthest mosque" At that time "mosque" (Masjid) did not mean a building, but a "place of prostration" - a place for prayer. The name of the place was not specified, but has been identified as Jerusalem.
Muhammad dismounted and tethered Buraq on the Temple Mount while he prayed in the cave in the Rock (which is now at the center of the Dome of the Rock - the Golden Dome on the Temple Mount). Jibril came to Muhammad again and purified his heart so that he could enter the heavens, and Buraq carried Muhammad to the heavens, where he met Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses), Yahya ibn Zakariya (John the Baptist), and Isa (Jesus). Then Muhammad was taken to the nearer presence of Allah, who told him that Moslems must pray 50 times a day. Musa told Muhammad that that would be very difficult for people to do, and asked him to plead for a reduction. Muhammad pleaded with Allah, and eventually the number was reduced to five - these are the five times of Salat. Muhammad returned to Mecca in the same night as he left, brought by Buraq. Allah also instructed Muhammad that prayer was no longer to be made facing towards Jerusalem (as was done initially), but towards Mecca.
In some Muslim countries the Night Journey is celebrated with special prayers and food.
The Temple Mount, Al-Haram ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) was the highest place in the original city of Jerusalem. The Jewish Temple was built there by Solomon, rebuilt by the Jews on their return from exile in Babylon, and extended over many years by Herod the Great. It was destroyed by the Romans in AD 70. After the Emperor Constantine became a Christian and Christians were free to practice their religion, Jerusalem became a place for Christian pilgrimage. However, the pilgrims were more interested in the sites associated with the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus, so no Christian church was built on the Temple Mount.
The Persians (who had become Muslims) invaded in 614, and besieged Jerusalem in 637, and the area of the Temple Mount became a focus for Islamic prayer.
The Dome of the Rock is the building with the golden dome at the highest point of the Temple Mount. It is built over a huge rock which may have been part of the Holy Place of the Jerusalem Temple (Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple).
The Rock is acknowledged by Muslims, Jews, and Christians as the top of Mount Moriah, where Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son (Genesis 22:1-10) - Jews and Christians identify the son as Isaac, Moslems identify him as Ishmael. There is a large cave within the rock, which was originally entered through a small tunnel (the Crusaders made a larger entrance when they controlled Jerusalem, 1099-1187). The cave is where Muhammad prayed before Buraq carried him to the heavens. Until recently, non-Muslims were allowed to enter the Dome of the Rock (if they took their shoes off) and even to go down into the cave. I did so several times on visits to Jerusalem. Now, however, with increasing terrorism and tension, only adult Moslems are allowed to do so.
The Dome of the Rock was built initially by the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik in 691. It was further developed and adorned through the centuries. In 1554 Suleiman the Magnificent carried out extensive restoration and added the beautiful ceramic tiles to the exterior which are a feature of the present building. In 1993, the golden dome was repaired and renewed with real gold (instead of gilded aluminium) paid for by King Hussein of Jordan at a cost of $8.3 million.
The Al Aqsa Mosque (Mosque of Omar) in Jerusalem is the third most holy place of Islam (the first being Mecca and the second Medina). It is the mosque with the blackened Silver dome adjacent to one of the old gates (now closed) in the wall to the Temple Mount.
The Caliph Umar conquered Jerusalem and built a house of prayer on the Temple Mount.
It was not built directly over the highest rock (where the Golden Dome is now) but a short distance away, where some Moslems believe is the place where Muhammad prayed. The house of prayer was extended by subsequent caliphs, and rebuilt after earthquakes. The present mosque was built in 1033 by the Fatimid caliph Ali Az-Zahir.
Moslems in Jerusalem do not pray facing the Dome of the Rock, but towards Mecca.
Divisions within Islam
The two main divisions of Islam are Sunni and Shi'ite, and there are several other groups and New Religious Movements which have developed over the years.
NOTE - for purposes of the Final Project, Sunnis, Shi'ites, and Sufis are regarded as groups within mainstream Islam - they are not a New Religious Movement, sect, or cult.
Both Sunnis and Shiites have further divisions.
The first major division occurred at the death of Muhammad - most of the Ummah (Islamic community) believed that the next Caliph (leader of the community) should be Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's earliest and closest followers. This group gave rise to Sunni Islam. The word "Sunni" is derived from the Arabic 'Ahlu-s-Sunnati wa-l-Jamā'ah (people of the tradition of Muhammad and the community of the Ummah). Sunnis stress that they are following the example of Muhammad. The Wahabis are the most important Sunni group.
However, Muhammad had a cousin, whom he adopted as his son, and who married Muhammad's daughter Fatima. The group who became the Shi'a Moslems held that Ali should have been the first Caliph, and regarded Ali as the First Imam (religious leader). Shi'ia Moslems hold that Ali's interpretation of the Quran was infallible, that he inherited Muhammad's spiritual abilities and that his descendants inherited them through him.
Most of the Imamis live in Iran. They are also known as "Twelvers" because they believe that there were twelve lawful Imams (spiritual leaders) who were descended directly from Ali and Fatima. The Imams were free from error and sin and were chosen by divine decree.
The Twelfth Imam, who went into hiding in 873, did not die, but went into "occultation".
NOTE - there is a typo in the textbook - the term should be "occultation"
The Twelfth Imam will return at the end of time, but until then he can be contacted by the "doctors of the law" and the Ayatollahs. The Ayatollahs are the most senior doctors of the law, and they have the right to interpret the law (Sharia) and to make religious rulings.
NOTE - There is a difference between the Sunnis and the Shi'ites use of the term "imam" - Shi'ites use the word "Imam" to refer to any of the Twelve Imams (religious leaders who were descendents of Ali and Fatima). Sunnis use the word in a much more general sense, to include current Sunni Moslem religious leaders.
Other Shiite groups include the Assassins and the Ismailis. The Ismailis hold that only a direct descendent of Muhammad's daughter Fatima and her husband Ali can be a rightful Caliph. The Druze religion was founded by a Fatimid Caliph, Hakim, around the year 1000.
Sufis represent the mystical branch of Islam. Sufis strive to attain closeness to God by mystical practices rather than by following legalistic rules or studying the scriptures. They often induce a trance-like state by dancing or pivoting on one leg while reciting the names of God.
They need to have a spiritual adviser, called a Shaykh or Pir, to keep them from getting caught up with anything like a cult, or "following the devil".
One of the most famous Sufis was the Persian poet Rumi (1207-1273), who inspired the Sema ritual of a whirling dance while chanting the names of Allah.
A Dervish, or Whirling Dervish is a member of a Sufi order which uses dancing or spinning in a circle or on one leg while chanting the names of God or the Bismallah as a method of attaining mystical union.
The Mosque
A mosque is the religious center for a Moslem community. It is used for worship, for study and teaching, and as an administrative center. There are be no statues or pictures of people, because Islam forbids the making of images which might introduce shirk. The only decorations are usually geometrical patterns and calligraphy of parts of the Quran. Islam forbids the making of graven images, and this often includes pictures of living creatures. The main decorations will be sutras of the Koran, written in flowing calligraphic styles.
The main area of a mosque is a bare hall - no seats or benches, but the floor often covered with beautiful carpets or rugs. This is because Moslems pray standing in lines facing the direction of Mecca, or they kneel and touch the ground with their foreheads.
In Moslem countries a mosque has a minaret - a tall tower with a platform near the top for the muezzin to make the call to prayer. Now-a-days there are often loudspeakers on the minaret, and the call to prayer is broadcast - starting at dawn.
Near the entrance to the mosque there will be a fountain or other source of water for washing before and after prayer. Worshippers wash their hands and arms, and remove their shoes before entering the mosque.
Inside, there will be a mihrab - a niche in the wall to show the direction of Mecca, so that worshippers will know which way to face when praying.
There will also be a minbar or pulpit from which the Imam may preach, and a dikka or raised platform for the Imam's assistants to signal his actions to the larger congregation.
Moslems believe that the Bible in use by Jews and Christians has been corrupted. It is thought by Moslems that the Jews re-wrote their scriptures, and downplayed the importance of Ishmael in order to focus on Isaac. It is commonly said that the account in Genesis, chapter 22, of God testing Abraham to see if he were willing to sacrifice his son Isaac, originally had Ishmael in the place of Isaac. The Arabs trace their lineage back to Ishmael (and hence to Abraham), and believe that the "Promised Land" which is now Israel was originally promised to Ishmael and the Arabs.
Historically, Moslems allowed Christians and Jews to continue to live in the lands conquered by the Arabs. They were regarded as a secondary religion rather than heathens because Moslems had recognized Moses, John the Baptist, and Jesus as "prophets". though of a lesser status that Mohammed. Jews and Christians are referred to as "People of the Book" (the Old Testament) and are classed as "dhimmis" (Protected people). They are secondary to Moslems, have to pay a special tax, and are not allowed to spread their faith in Moslem-controlled regions.
Good and Evil
Islam teaches that we are all born with a natural instinct to know the difference between right and wrong. We also have free will, so we must choose between right (the guidance of Allah) and wrong (following the temptations of Shaytan, the devil).
Allah created angels from divine light, and other spirits, called Jinn, from fire. Then He made the first human being, Adam, from clay. Allah ordered all the angels and Jinn to bow down to Adam. One of the Jinn, called Iblis, refused, so Allah laid a curse on him and sent him away. So Iblis, who is also called Shaytan, went away to try to tempt human beings to choose to do wrong rather than right. Allah allows Iblis to test the faith of human beings, and Mohammed warned everyone to beware of Iblis and his tricks, and to trust in Allah and worship only Allah.
Muslims are required to follow Allah’s example of justice, mercy and forgiveness in their treatment of other people.
Death and the Afterlife
Islam teaches that Allah is in complete control over all that happens. Nothing can happen unless Allah permits it.
However, Allah has also given humans free will. People are able to choose between right and wrong, and are responsible for their actions. This life is a preparation for the eternal life to come. Human beings have one life and it is up to us how we choose to live it.
There will be a final day, decided by Allah, and known only to Allah, when life on earth will come to an end and Allah will destroy everything. On that day all the people who have ever lived will be raised from the dead and will face judgment by Allah. Moslems believe that they will remain in their graves until that day. The day is called by several names: The Day of Resurrection, The Day of Judgment, The Last Hour.
At that time Allah will balance the good deeds people have done in their life against the bad deeds. If the good deeds outweigh the bad, the person will go to paradise. If the bad things outweigh the good, then the person will be punished in hell. Even good and bad intentions will be taken into account, as well as actual deeds.
When Moslems are dying, they will try to repeat Mohammed's last words "Allah, help me through the hardship and agony of death.", or they may say "To Allah we belong and to Allah we return." At the moment of death they will try to say the Shahadah, "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet."
Moslems try to bury the dead as soon as possible and certainly within three days. The body is washed and wrapped in a white cloth. Moslems prefer not to use a coffin but in some countries this is not allowed. Bodies are buried facing Mecca. Moslems believe that there will be a physical resurrection on the Day of Judgment so they disapprove of cremation. However, they also believe that Allah will put people’s bodies back together again. While the mourners are standing by the grave the first Surah of the Qur'an is read.
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Ever Merciful.
All types of perfect praise belong to Allah alone, the Lord of all the worlds, Most Gracious, Ever Merciful, Master of the Day of Judgment.
Thee alone do we worship and Thee alone do we implore for help.
Guide us along the straight path - the path of those on whom Thou hast bestowed Thy favors, those who have not incurred Thy displeasure, and those who have not gone astray.
After the body has been placed in the ground, the mourners say Surah 20:55 :
From the earth have We created you, and into it We shall cause you to return and from it shall We bring you forth once more.
Graves are raised above ground level so that the place of burial is clearly marked, and so that people will not walk on them by accident.
Women in Islam
Women have a secondary place in Islam. A Muslim man is allowed to have multiple wives, but a woman may belong to only one man at a time - as an unmarried girl she is under the direction of her father or brothers, and when she is married she is ruled by her husband.
A Muslim woman is not supposed to be seen by men other than her husband, and in some countries she is not allowed to be in mixed company (to mingle). Her dress is a sign of modesty. It varies slightly from one country to another, but generally involves almost complete cover of the body.
The burqa is a garment which covers her completely - a panel of mesh fabric in front of the eyes allows her to see. The niqab is a head-covering with a small opening for the eyes. The hijab is a veil for the head.
A menstruating woman is regarded as unclean, and is not supposed to enter a mosque to pray.
Time Line
AD 570 - Muhammad was born
610 - the first revelations of the Qu'ran to Muhammad
622 - The Hijrah or Hejirah - Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina. This is AH 1 for Muslims (year 1 - Anno Hejirah)
632-661 - Period of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs - leaders after Muhammad. The Rightly-Guided Caliphs were leaders who ruled as representative of God and Muhammad, but were not regarded as prophets. There were four successive Rightly-Guided Caliphs - Abu Bakr, Umar, Urhman, then Ali (Muhammad's nephew and son-in-law)
661 - 'Ali was murdered (Shi'a Islam holds that 'Ali should have been the first Caliph (leader after Muhammad).
661-750 - Umayyad period. A rival leader, Mu'awiya, came into power, but there were deep divisions within the Muslim community. Mu'awiya founded the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled from Damascus (in Syria) and conquered lands from India to Spain. The Umayyads broke the tradition of choosing leaders, and founded a hereditary dynasty.
680 - Battle at Karbala, death of Husayn. Husayn was a grandson of Muhammad. His mother was Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, and his father was Ali. Husayn challenged the Umayyads for the leadership of the umma. Shi'a Muslims regard the death of Husayn as a martyrdom. The split between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims became final.
750-1258 - Abbasid period. The Abbasid party defeated the Umayyads, moved the capital to Baghdad, and fostered a period of literature and the arts and sciences.
873 - The Twelfth Imam disappeared. "Twelver" Shi'ites believe that he did not die, but went into "occultation" (hiding) until the end of time. Then he will return.
996 - Hakim (Al-Hakim Bi Amr Allah - the Ruler in the Name of Allah) became Caliph (leader of the Islamic community) in Cairo (Egypt) at the age of 11. Al-Hakim belonged to the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descent from Mohammed's daughter Fatima - they belonged to the Shi'ite branch of Islam.
Al-Hakim sent missionaries out to proclaim a reform of Islam and insist on only one God. Al-Hakim is regarded by the Druze as their first founding father.
1017 - Hakim appointed Hamza (Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad) as religious leader. Hamza announced that Hakim was "Ruler in the Name of Allah", and wrote the religious doctrines for what became the Druze religion. The Druze regard Hamza as their second founding father.
1021 - Hakim disappeared in the desert, and his body was never found. The next Caliph began to persecute the followers of Hakim and Hamza, so they fled to Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, and became the Druze.
1095-1453 - The Crusades. Christian armies from Europe invaded the Holy Land.
1281-1924 - Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was founded by Turkish peoples who had become Muslims. They were not Arabs. They captured Constantinople in 1543, renamed it Byzantium, and made it their capital city. The Ottoman Sultan (ruler) entered WWI on the side of Germany. At the end of WWI there was an Armistice - the terms of which were misunderstood or misrepresented, and which led to some of the present conflicts in the Middle East and the Levant. There were conspiracies and revolts, and the Empire collapsed in 1922. The sultanate was abolished in 1922, and the caliphate was abolished in 1924. The Turkish War of Independence (1919-1922) brought victory to the Turkish National movement, led by Mustafa Kemal ("Atatürk"), who became the first President of Turkey.
1817 - Birth of Bahá'u'lláh.
1819 - Birth of the Bab
1844 - The Bab identified Bahá'u'lláh as the new prophet (to replace Muhammad). This was the beginning of the Baha'i religion
1850 - Execution of the Bab on a charge of heresy.
1892 - Death of Bahá'u'lláh.
1979 - Iranian Revolution - the overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi and the Pahlavi dynasty, followed by the coming to power of the Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.
Copyright © 1999 Shirley J. Rollinson, all Rights Reserved
