RELG 402 - World's Living Religions
Shinto
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Kami no michi, (Way of the Spirits), known in the West as Shinto, is the ancient native religion of Japan, with traditions going back to long before the introduction of writing to Japan in the fifth century A.D.
The origins of its beliefs and rituals are unknown. Shinto has a great many spiritual beings and gods, known as kami, who are paid tribute at shrines and honored by festivals. Kami are the forces that inspire a sense of wonder and awe, and may be manifested by places, mountains, rocks, rivers, waterfalls, animals, and even people. Mount Fuji is a kami who is regarded as a person and given the honorific title -san : Fuji-san.
Kami have several characteristics :
- They can be capricious. Kami are thought to possess two souls - one gentle and one assertive. They can love and take care of people when they are treated with proper respect, or they can cause destruction and disharmony if they are displeased. They must be given gifts to keep them sweet-tempered and to avoid their wrath.
- They are invisible, and belong to another realm of existence, though they can inhabit sacred places or even people during certain rituals
- They can move around. They may visit their shrines, but they do not stay in them all the time.
- There are hundreds of different types of Kami, with different attributes and functions. e.g. care of roads, doorways, wind, harvest, rivers.
- Some Kami have various duties towards human beings. If the people perform the correct service, the Kami is obliged to respond.
Shinto is an action-based tradition rather than a religion with a set of doctrines and scriptures. The rituals are carried out diligently, in order to keep Japan rooted in its early history and ancient roots.
Initially, the local rulers were responsible for performing religious rituals to ensure the well-being of society. These rituals formed the basis of Shinto. In the early 19th century (after the Meiji Restoration) the government required that every family should become members of a Shinto shrine. This was followed by the doctrine of the Divine Right of the Emperor to rule, based on his descent from the goddess Amaterasu. Further doctrines were developed - that the Japanese were superior to all other people, and that Japan was greater than all other countries because it had been founded by the twin kami Tzanagi and Tzanami. As a consequence of Japan's defeat in WWII these doctrines were abolished, and the Emperor ceased to function as the "Son of Heaven"
Although there is no overall dogma, adherents of Shinto are taught to remember and celebrate the kami, support the societies of which the kami are patrons, to maintain the traditions of the family, to love nature and natural phenomena, to remain pure and sincere, and enjoy life, and to keep themselves physically clean by bathing and washing.
Shinto also teaches great reverence for ancestors.
Over 50% of Japanese identify themselves as either Shinto or "non-religious". The Japanese think of a "religion" as an organized religion with specific doctrines and membership requirements. Many of those who claim to be non-religious do take part in Shinto and/or Buddhist rituals and worship, but they think of this as a tradition rather than a religion.
Many families will use both Buddhist and Shinto ceremonies. Shinto is associated with life, so Shinto ceremonies will be performed for life-events such as weddings and naming a baby. Buddhism is associated with dearth-events, so Buddhist ceremonies will be used for funerals.
Ceremonies are performed at a multitude of public shrines dedicated to various kami. It is believed that the kami dwells in the shrine. There is no formal ritual to become a practicer of Shinto - one simply goes to a shrine and prays to the kami for help.
There are thousands of shrines and Shinto priests and priestesses in Japan. Originally they were linked closely to the Emperor and were supported by the state. However, at the end of WWII the US Military Occupation authorities issued the "Shinto Directive" to abolish state support for Shinto and to introduce the separation of church and state. This was done because it appeared that prior to and during the war a form of Shinto had been used as propaganda to encourage the militaristic and nationalistic culture that had brought Japan into the war.
This meant that there would be no further financial support from the state, and that from then on all shrines would have to be supported by private donations.
Subsequently, the Association of Shinto Shrines was set up in 1946 as a non-governmental organization. The main offices are adjacent to the Meiji shrine. Amongst its leaders are the head priestess of the Ise Shrine and the chief priest of the Mishima Shrine. The Association handles the financial and personnel affairs for member shrines. Its main activities are
- Performance of rituals
- Publication of information on Shrine Shinto
- Education of followers of Shinto
- Preparation of candidates for the Shinto priesthood
- Reverence of the Ise Shrine
Thousands of shrines have joined the Association of Shinto Shrines, but there seems to be no formal hierarchy or authority structure other than the local priests and priestesses. There are no fixed doctrines or canonical scriptures.
There are several expressions and varieties of Shinto :
Shrine Shinto is the main tradition of Shinto. People take part in worship ceremonies at local shrines, which are usually dedicated to some local deity. There are about 80,000 shrines which are administered by the Association of Shinto Shrines.
Families often also have a household shrine for daily worship in addition to a public shrine.
Imperial Shinto is restricted to the Emperor of Japan and his family. It consists of the religious rites performed by the Emperor at three shrines at the Imperial palace. For instance, he takes part in a ritual rice planting (to ensure a good crop), and later in the year a ritual harvesting of the rice (to give thanks for the harvest). This recalls his ancestor, the First Emperor, who is credited with starting the rice culture of Japan by bringing five sacred grains of rice from heaven
Folk Shinto is a collection of unorganized stories and local beliefs about spirits. It includes shamanism, divination, spirit possession, and shamanistic healing. It has been influenced by Buddhist, Taoism and Confucianism.
Sect Shinto is a later development of Shinto, defined legally in the 1890s to distinguish between locally-owned shrines and those owned by the government at that time. The locally-owned shrines belong to various Shinto communities which are distinct from the older traditions. They were founded by particular people, have sets of teachings and sometimes sacred scriptures. There are about thirteen such sects, which can be grouped in five types : Pure Shinto sects, Confucian Sects, Mountain Worship Sects, Purification Sects, and Faith-Healing Sects.
Old Shinto or Koshinto is an attempt to restore Shinto to the conditions before Buddhism entered Japan.
Faction Shinto describes the New Religious Movements which developed in the 20th century and which may differ considerably from traditional Shinto. New Shinto sects include Tenrikyo, Konkokyo, Omotokyo, Shinrikyo, Shinreikyo, Sekai Shindokyo, Zenrinkyo and others.
Independent new religious movements include Aum Shinrikyo, Mahikari movements, the Church of Perfect Liberty, Seicho-no-Ie, the Church of World Messianity, and many others.
Tenrikyo is one of the oldest and largest NRMs derived from Shinto. It was founded by Nakayama Miki (1798-1887), a Japanese woman, in 1838. The story is that Nakayama Miki's husband and son were ill, and Nakayama Miki was performing a healing ritual when she became possessed by the One God. The One God demanded that Nakayama Miki become his "shrine",
Nakayama Miki's followers referred to her as Oyasama and "The Shrine of God". She taught that one should follow the "Joyous Life" by performing acts of charity and by cleaning one's mind of the "Eight Mental Dusts". The Eight Mental Dusts are Miserliness, Covetousness, Hatred, Self-love, Grudge-bearing, Anger, Greed, and Arrogance. These are regarded as "dust on the mind" rather than sins. They can be cleared from the mind by performing a service every morning and evening, with music and chanting, coupled with the performance of some act of service to others.
Tenriko teaches that the universe is the body of God, and also that God is the parent of all human beings.
Creation
Shinto sees the source of the universe as Amenominakanushi, the "kami who came into being alone", the first of the "Three kami of creation" and one of the five "Distinguished Heavenly Kami ". He/She/It is identified as the kami of the North Star and the Master of the seven stars of Ursa Major (the Big Dipper), the "All-Father of the Originating Hub".
The Japanese Creation Myth was first written down in the Kojiki (The Ancient Chronicles of Japan), the first book written in Japan, in 712. Another account was written in the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan) (720). There are some differences between the two accounts.
The story tells how two kami, Tzanagi and his sister Tzanami, were called to help the other kami to create a new land which was to become Japan. They stirred the primeval waters with a spear, and when they removed the spear a drop of water from its tip formed an island which they called Onogoro. They lived on the island and had children. The first child was a monster, but after that Tzanami gave birth to the eight islands of Japan, and then to many other kami. Her last child was the Fire god, who burned Tzanami so severely that she died and went to the Land of the Dead (Yomi). Tzanagi was distraught, and went to Yomi to rescue Tzanami, but when he found her she pleaded with him not to look at her. He disobeyed, and saw that the beautiful Tzanami had become a rotting terrible demon from whom he fled in horror.
Returning to the islands, Tzanagi purified himself by washing in the Hi river. As he did, the Sun Goddess Amaterasu was born from his left eye, the Moon God Tsukuyomi was born from his right eye, and the Storm God Susanoo was born from his nose. Tzanagi handed over his powers to his children, and retired to the northern island of Kyushu. Today there are a few shrines to Tzanagi and Tzanami on Kyushu.
After some time Tsukuyomi killed one of the other kami (the goddess of food), and Amaterasu separated herself from him in anger, thus separating the day from the night. Some time after that Susanoo had a fit of anger and destroyed Amaterasu's rice fields and killed one of her attendants. Amaterasu was angry and grieved, and hid herself in the Heavenly Rock Cave. The sun did not shine for a long time, until some of the other kami tricked Amaterasu to leave the cave by using a mirror - she saw her reflection in the mirror, and thought that another Sun goddess had arrived, so came out of the cave to confront her.
Susanoo was banished from heaven, and gave a sacred sword, Kusanagi, to Amaterasu in reparation. He had obtained the sword when he killed an eight-headed monster - he found the sword inside one of the monster's tails.
The sacred sword, along with her sacred mirror and a sacred jewel (or polished stone amulet), became the Three Imperial Regalia of Japan.
Amaterasu is worshipped at the Ise Shrine on the main island, Honshu. Her sacred mirror is said to be kept at this shrine. Every 20 years there is a ceremony where the shrine buildings are destroyed and burned down, and new buildings are constructed. This has been carried out since the year 690.
Amaterasu and the Imperial Family
Amaterasu had a grandson, Ninigi no Mikoto, whom she appointed to rule the earth. She gave him five sacred grains of rice which had been grown in the fields of Heaven. With the gift of rice he was able to tame the earth and start the Japanese civilization and so he became the First Emperor of Japan. She also gave him her mirror, the sacred sword, and her sacred amulet, and these have become the Imperial Regalia of Japan. They are kept in shrines, and at the time of the accession of a new Emperor they are covered and brought to a ceremony in front of him; at all other times they are kept hidden from view.
Some sources say that the First Emperor of Japan was Jinmu, the great-grandson of Ninigi no Mikoto, who established the capital at Yamato.
Shrines
A Shinto shrine is always entered by going through a torii, a "Gateless Gate", which marks the border between common space and sacred space. A torii is constructed of two upright poles or columns and two crossbars. It is always open - there is no gate or door to hinder the entrance of anyone into the sacred space. However, within the shrine compound there are places which are forbidden to anyone except the priests. The boundaries of the shrine are usually marked by fences, ropes, hedges, etc. with only one torii as an entrance.
There may be statues of protective entities, the komainu, "Lion Dogs", on either side of the entrance. The komainu were introduced from Chinese Buddhism. The pairs are not identical - one has his mouth open, the other has his mouth closed and often also has a horn on his forehead. It is said that the one with his mouth open is pronouncing the first letter of the Sanskrit (an Indian language) alphabet. "a", and the other is pronouncing the last letter "um", signifying the beginning and end of all things. Together the sounds combine to give the sound "Aum" - the Hindu sacred syllable. Sometimes they are called Shishi (Japanese for Lion). They protect against evil spirits.
Occasionally other animals are used - shrines dedicated to Inari have pairs of foxes carrying a scroll, a key, or a jewel in the mouth.
The shrine compound usually has a hall for public worship, a hall for offerings, and a hall which holds the symbol of the kami and which is normally entered only by the high priest of the shrine.
Activities at a shrine include religious rituals, ceremonies for people's lives (such as births and weddings), and festivals. The priests perform the rituals and act as administrators of the shrine. Since 1947 the shrines have been private institutions rather than state-owned, and are supported financially by the local families and by visitors and pilgrims.
Visiting a Shinto shrine
Anyone may visit a Shinto shrine. There is no requirement for membership.
One should bow respectfully when entering the gateway. There will usually be a basin of water for hand washing, with dippers provided. One should take a dipper of water with the right hand, pour some over the left hand, then pour some over the right hand. Pour water into the palm of the left hand, and take some of the water into the mouth. Rinse the mouth, but do not drink the water, then spit the water back into the left hand. Turn the dipper over so that the water runs over its handle (onto the ground, not into the basin) and replace the dipper. This serves to purify the body, heart, and mind.
Approaching the shrine, one must get the attention of the kami. A small donation should be made if there is an offering box, and if there is a bell one rings it. Then one bows twice, claps the hands twice, and holds the closed hands over the heart for prayers and another bow.
Offerings at a shrine may be of food (fruit, fish, vegetables), tree branches, salt, rice, rice cake, saké (rice wine).
Adherents to Shinto usually perform the purification ritual and prayers at a shrine every day. More zealous practitioners may stand under a waterfall or bathe in a river for purification. This reflects the purification which was performed by Tzanagi when he returned from Yomi
Shrine ceremonies are very long and complicated - it is said that some take years for the priests to learn. The priesthood is hereditary and includes priestesses. Priests and priestesses may be married (how else does one have a hereditary priesthood ?). Their main occupation is performing the rituals - they are not expected to preach or meditate.
In addition to the priests and priestesses there are miko - unmarried girls who act as acolytes and shrine maidens.
Particular Shinto Shrines
The main Ise Grand Shrine is on Honshū island, and is dedicated to Amaterasu. Her sacred mirror was kept here, and a replica is probably still at the shrine. It is said that the original was destroyed in a fire in 1040, but that the ashes of the original were mixed into the metal of the replica. No-one is allowed to see the mirror. Every twenty years the main shrine building is burned down, and a new one is built; this has been done since the year 690 AD. This is to show death and renewal in nature, and the impermanence of all things.
The Ise Shrines are actually a large complex of over 100 shrines to various deities, but the "Inner Shrine" is the most important and is the one dedicated to Amaterasu. The main shrines are hidden by tall fences, and the general public is not admitted to them. The chief priest or priestess of the Ise Shrine must be a member of the Japanese Imperial family.
The Atsuta Shrine is where the Imperial sword Kusanagi is kept. Kusanagi is the sword that was given by the Storm god to Amaterasu, and which she gave to her grandson Ninigi no Mikoto, the First Emperor of Japan.
The Meiji Shrine - the shrine of the Emperor Meiji in Tokyo, where the Imperial Jewel is kept.
Worship may also be performed in the home, at a house-hold shrine or kamidana. Worshippers often buy an ofuda from a shrine and keep it at the home kamidana. The ofuda is made of paper, wood, or metal, and is inscribed with the name of a kami; it acts as a talisman to keep the home safe.
Many other kinds of talismans and good-luck charms are also used, some of them coming from Buddhist traditions. Shrines sell wooden plaques for people to write their prayers and leave them at a special place at the shrine. Other amulets are sold for wearing, to convey personal protection.
Sacred Dance, Kagura
Kagura is linked to the Japanese Creation Myth. When Amaterasu hid in the cave, one of the other kami began to dance to loud music outside the cave to try to entice Amaterasu to come out. Kagura is performed to entice the kami to come and dance and bless the worshippers. The dance is accompanied by loud drumming and incantations calling upon the kami. Kagua may also be used at the time of death or at funerals, to pacify the spirits of the departed. It is often performed at Shinto shrines by the Miko as a form of prayer.
The birth of a Japanese baby is usually celebrated by a formal visit to a Shinto shrine when the baby is about 1 month old. Similar visits take place on a child's 3rd, 5th, and 7th birthdays, and at the official entry into adulthood at the age of 20. The child's name is added to a list kept at the shrine; this records him/her as a "family child" under the protection of the local Kami.
Wedding ceremonies are usually performed by Shinto priests.
On New Year's Day (January 1) a Japanese family often visits a Shinto shrine to pray for a successful year and blessings for the family.
Since the freedom of religion in Japan was introduced at the end of WWII there has been a great increase in the formation of new sects of Shinto, sects of Buddhism, and New Religious Movements unrelated to the traditional religions.
Copyright © 2015 Shirley J. Rollinson, all Rights Reserved
