RELG 433 - Biblical Archaeology
Archaeological Periods
In the Middle East
Mesolithic
10,000 to between 6,000 and 4,000 BC - Period which follows the Upper Paleolithic in most of Europe and Asia. Corresponds to the period of primarily nomadic hunting and gathering which preceded the adoption of domesticated plants and animals.
Neolithic
Begins ca. 8,000 BC in Near East, begins and ends at different times throughout the Old World
Defined by the presence of villages and domesticated plants and animals. The Neolithic in other parts of the Old World is defined by the appearance of these characteristics at different times. The earliest Neolithic villages are found in the "Fertile Crescent" (the Levant, Anatolia, western Iraq and Iran), with later agricultural settlements appearing in Greece and Bulgaria to the west and the Indus Valley of Pakistan to the east. The Neolithic appeared independently in Southeast Asia and China.
Chalcolithic
The term used to refer to the transitional period between the Neolithic or Mesolithic and the "Bronze Age" in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and parts of Asia, around 3,000 BC.
Characterized by the appearance of tools made of copper prior to the introduction of
bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). Early forms of writing appeared in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China during this period.
Bronze Age
The period which corresponds to the flourishing of the first ancient civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, and the Mediterranean in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. Named for the widespread use of bronze technology, primarily for weapons and ritual objects. The period is characterized by the rise of state societies, cities, and of warfare.
Iron Age
Corresponds to the introduction and spread of iron technology for weapons and tools after the 2nd millennium BC. Increasing contacts between the historic civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean and the "less-civilized" peoples of Europe and Asia (farming communities in Europe and largely nomadic peoples in the Central Asian plains). Ends roughly with the expansion of the Roman Empire into parts of Europe and Asia, but continues into late Medieval times in parts of Africa.
Periods, Cultures and Sites
Pre-pottery Neolithic, 8,000 BC - 5,500 BC
- Jericho, walled town with a central tower, skulls plastered to reproduce facial features
- Jarmo, farming community in Mesopotamia
- Hacilar (south-west Turkey) from pre-pottery Neolithic to Chalcolithic
Pottery Neolithic, 5,500 BC - 4,000 BC
- Catal Huyuk (Turkey) - pueblo-like developed Neolithic village, shrines decorated with skulls of cattle, pottery, wall paintings, trade in obsidian
- Yarmukian (Shaar HaGolan in northern Israel)
- Hassuna - developed villages in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq), widespread painted pottery (6,000 BC)
- Halaf - advanced Neolithic village culture of northern Mesopotamia, 5,500 BC
- Umm Dabaghiyah (Iraq) - settlement with specialized storage facilities in northern Mesopotamia
- Samarra - overlaps Halaf and Hassuna chronologically. Earliest irrigation in northern Mesopotamia, walled towns and large houses (5,500 BC)
- Tell Es-Sawaan (Iraq) - Samarran site with defensive wall, large houses, and rich burial goods (5,500 BC)
- Choga Mami - Samarran site with large irrigation canal
Chalcolithic, 4,000 BC - 3,000 BC
- Ghassulian (Ain Ghassul, Jordan) wall paintings, small settlements of farmers and sheepherders
- 'Ubaid - earliest settlements of southern Mesopotamia, 5,300-3,600 BC. Best known from site of Eridu, where a succession of temples and clay figurines were found
- Eridu - 'Ubaid early settlement in southern Mesopotamia (5,400-3,600 BC). Early temples
- Uruk - also known as Warka or Erech. (Iraq) - Consolidation of wealth in early Mesopotamian temples, increasing power of the temple and control of a labor force. Decorated clay columns and walls, bevel-rim bowls suggest a paid labor force.
Gilgamesh was an Early Dynastic military leader. Bullae - clay packing slips marked with tokens (3,600-3,100 BC) - Badarian, Amratian, and Gerzean - cultures in Upper Egypt (4,700-3,100 BC). Pre-hieroglyphic symbols and symbolic amulets appear in the Gerzean
- Merimde (Egypt) - early farming village near the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt) ca. 4,900-4,500 BC
4,000 - 3,000 BC
Not "Biblical" archaeology, but they flourished alongside the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt
- Tripolye - earliest farming culture of Russia at around 4,000 BC
- Beaker People - Neolithic farmers of Western Europe, earliest construction at Stonehenge (England) - religious observatory built of megaliths (4,000 BC)
- The first Megalithic tombs were built at this time, in Western Europe, Scandinavia, and Mediterranean regions
Early Bronze Age, 3,000-2,000 BC
- Jemdet Nasr - continued importance of temples in Mesopotamia, increasing use of cylinder seals, early cuneiform notation (3,100-2,900 BC)
- Sumer - the name given to the land between the Tigris and the Euprates, the home of the Sumerian culture
Early Dynastic - initial flourishing of the Sumerian culture, earliest historical records in cuneiform, rise of palace rulership, warring city-states
Royal Tombs at Ur - discovered at Ur by Leonard Woolley in 1927, people and horses had been buried with royal personages, gold ornaments, musical instruments, chariots (2,900-2,400 BC)
Shub-ab or Pu-abi - a queen in the Royal Tombs. Her golden head-dress is now in the British Museum
Gilgamesh - early ruler at Ur
Lagash (Iraq) - Sumerian city-state
Kish (Iraq) - Sumerian city-state - First and Second Dynasties (Egypt) - unification of control over towns of Upper and Lower Egypt under Narmer
Earliest hieroglyphic texts
Mastabas built for burial of rulers (3,050-2,600 BC)
Narmer - unified Upper and Lower Egypt. A slate "palette"; (for grinding cosmetics?) was found with his name on it
Hierakonopolis - the first capital of the united Egypt, and the site where the Narmer Palette was found - Old Kingdom of Egypt - the "pyramid age" (2,600-2,100 BC)
Step Pyramid at Saqqara (3rd Dynasty)
Saqqara - first (Step) pyramid
Djoser - second king of the Old Kingdom, buried at Saqqara
Imhotep - architect of Saqqara
Pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure built at Giza (4th Dynasty)
Giza - site (by modern Cairo) of the Great Pyramid and the Sphinx
Khufu (Kheops) - was buried in the Great Pyramid
Khafre (Khephren) - his face is portrayed by the Sphinx - Akkadians - Semitic people led by Sargon of Agade, who conquered early Sumerian city-states and unified Mesopotamia for the first time (ca.2,400 BC)
Sargon - (ca.2340-2280 BC) Semitic (Akkadian) conqueror of Sumerians, who had his capital at Agade - Lugalzagesi - Sumerian king defeated by Sargon
- Naram Sin - Akkadian king (ca.2254-2218 BC)
- Gutians - invaders from the Zagros Mountains who overthrew the Akkadians and restored Sumerian rule in Mesopotamia (2,200 BC)
Middle Bronze Age, 2,000-1,550 BC
- Ur III (Third Dynasty of Ur - "classic" flourishing of Sumerian civilization (2,100-2,000 BC). Refinement of Sumerian government, literature, and religion. Earliest proclamation of "freedom" and codification of first laws
Ur-Nammu (2112-2094 BC), founder of Ur III, built a large ziggurat at Ur - Isin-Larsa - Invasions and rule by Elamites (2,000-1,800 BC)
- Warad-sin (ca.1779-1759,) king of Larsa in Mesopotamia
Rim-sin (ca. 1758-1698), king of Larsa - Shamshi-adad I (1750-1718), Assyrian king
- Mari (1750-1697), an Amorite city-state in Mesopotamia, with a palace and a large library of cuneiform tablets.
Zimri-lim (last king of Mari). Mari was destroyed by Hammurapi of Babylon - (Old) Babylonian Empire, (1750-1595, founded by Hammurapi
Hammurapi, Babylonian ruler and law-giver came to power ca.1,750 BC - First Intermediate Period in Egypt - temporary disruption of Egyptian rule by severe droughts and famines (2,100 BC)
- Middle Kingdom of Egypt - constructions at Deir El-Bahri and Luxor (2,900-1,700 BC)
Hatshepsut - female pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom, seized power, built a funerary temple for herself - Second Intermediate Period - disruption of Egypt by Hyksos invasions (1,700-1,500 BC)
Late Bronze Age, 1,550 - 1,250 BC
- New Kingdom of Egypt (1,500-1,000 BC) - age of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Tutankhamen, Ramesses II; (1,500-1,000 BC
Valley of the Kings - New Kingdom tombs (Tutankhamun, Ramesses)
Akhenaten - monotheistic pharaoh and sun worshipper, married to Nefertiti, founded a new city as his capital at Amarna
Tutankhamun (1,296 BC) - teenage boy king who was unknown to modern archaeology until his rich tomb was discovered by Howard Carter in 1922. One of the earliest examples of an iron dagger was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun; the iron was from a meteorite, not from terrestrial iron ore.
Ramesses II - a pharaoh of the dynasty which followed Tutankhamun, he favored warfare and conquests, probable enslavement of Hebrews and other peoples. His mummy still has hair on the skull, and is in the Cairo Museum - Hittite Empire (ca. 1,700-1,200 BC) - iron-working warriors from the steppes north of Anatolia (in what is now Turkey), strong military and political influence over Assyria and Egypt
Mursillis I (ca. 1540 BC), Shuppiluliuma (ca.1375-1335 BC), correspondence with Egypt, Muwattalis (ca.1306-1282 BC) - Assyria conquered Babylon ca.1,234 BC, but fell to the Elamites ca.1,155 BC
- The Late Bronze Age ended in a period of disruption throughout the region, as civilizations fell apart and new peoples invaded
Bronze Age (India) 2,700-1,700 BC
Not strictly "Biblical" archaeology, but they flourished alongside the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt
- Harappans (2,700-1,700 BC) of the Indus Valley of Pakistan, civilization with cities of fired bricks. Destroyed by floods, droughts, and invasions. They had a writing system which has not yet been deciphered. Archaeology of the sites is difficult because of the high water-table in the Indus valley. There is evidence for a very limited contact with Mesopotamia and the west (trade, not diplomatic or military). Cities include Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kot Diji and Kalibangan
Iron Ages, starting ca.1,200 BC
In Israel, the Iron Age is divided into several sections, corresponding to the political situations of the time.
Different archaeologists used slightly different subdivisions of the Iron Age, so you may find other authors using different terminology.
Iron Age I, (ca.1,200-1,000 BC) covers the period of Joshua and the Judges, and extends into the reign of King Saul. The Israelites were not in full control of the land, so there were still some Canaanite settlements and Philistine strongholds
Iron Age IIA, (1,000-800 BC) covers the United Monarchy, the reigns of Kings David and Solomon
Iron Age IIB, (800-700 BC) covers the Divided Monarchy, until the Fall of Samaria to Sargon II of Assyria
- Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC) - civilization which flourished in Mesopotamia, characterized by despotic rulers obsessed with warfare and empire-building, built elaborate palaces such as Nimrud and Nineveh
Iron Age IIC, (700-587 BC) covers the time from the Fall of Samaria, to the Fall of Jerusalem to Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon in 587 BC
- Neo-Babylonian Empire (626-539 BC) - King Nebuchadnezzar III conquered and burned Jerusalem, as described in the Old Testament, but the Empire fell to Cyrus the Persian shortly thereafter.
Iron Age III (587-539 BC) covers the time of Babylonian control, until Babylon fell to Cyrus of Persia
Copyright © 1999 Shirley J. Rollinson, all Rights Reserved
